3.1Discovery of the X Ray and the Electron 3.2Determination of Electron Charge 3.3Line Spectra
CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON...
Transcript of CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON...
![Page 1: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
General Chemistry I
1
CHEMISTRYStudying the properties of substances and the reactions that
transform substances into other substances.
Improving agricultural production, curing many diseases,
increasing the efficiency of energy production, and reducing
environmental pollution.
![Page 2: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
General Chemistry I
2
Single atom transfer using the scanning tunneling microscope
![Page 3: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
General Chemistry I
3
Alchemists trying to
turn base metals to
Gold.
![Page 4: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
General Chemistry I
4
Macroscopic and Nanoscopic Models
Hydrogen and oxygen
gas evolution in a 2:1
ratio from water by
passing an electric
current
![Page 5: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
General Chemistry I
5
CHEMICAL BONDING AND
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
CHAPTER 3
Chemical Bonding: The Classical Description
General Chemistry I
U N I T II
CHAPTER 4
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
CHAPTER 5
Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Structure
CHAPTER 6
Quantum Mechanics and Molecular Structure
![Page 6: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
General Chemistry I
6
The electron density in a
delocalized three-center bond
for H3+ calculated by
quantum mechanics
![Page 7: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
General Chemistry I
7
CHEMICAL BONDING:
THE CLASSICAL DESCRIPTION
3.1 Representations of Molecules
3.2 The Periodic Table
3.3 Forces and Potential Energy in Atoms
3.4 Ionization Energies, the Shell Model of the Atom,
and Shielding
3.5 Electron Affinity
3.6 Electronegativity: The Tendency of Atoms to Attract
Electrons in Molecules
3.7 Forces and Potential Energy in Molecules:
Formation of Chemical Bonds
3CHAPTER
General Chemistry I
![Page 8: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
General Chemistry I
8Key question 1: how atoms can form a stable
molecular structure?
Key question 2: what is the
classical atomic model?
![Page 9: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
General Chemistry I
9
3.1 REPRESENTATIONS OF MOLECULES
A molecule: a collection of atoms bonded together, with the elements
in fixed proportions and with a well-defined 3D structure.
- Determination of a molecular formula
2) Measuring the molar mass of the compound under study from
its gas-law behavior or by mass spectrometry.
1) Empirical formula: the set of smallest integers that represents the
ratios of the numbers of atoms in a compound.
3) Taking the ratio of that molar mass to the molar mass of the
empirical formula, and obtaining the molecular formula as a simple
integral multiple of the empirical formula.
i.e.) empirical formula CH2O ->
glucose C6H12O6, acetic acid C2H4O2, or formaldehyde CH2O
![Page 10: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
General Chemistry I
10
Simple 2D drawings from molecular formula: ex) methane CH4
Ball-and-stick models: the balls represent the atoms and the sticks
represent the bonds between them.
Molecular Representations
Lewis models: defining each bond as a pair of electrons localized
between two particular atoms and represents structural formulas
using Lewis dot diagrams.
Space-filling models: showing the atoms with specific sizes that
physically contact each other in molecules
Electrostatic potential energy diagram (elpot diagram): displaying
the electrostatic potential energy that a small positive “test charge”
would experience at every position on the electron density surface
that defines the space-filling model.
![Page 11: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
General Chemistry I
11
Lewis
dot
line line
angle
ball
and
stick
space
fillingElectrostatic
potential
energy
CH4
NH3
H2O
![Page 12: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
General Chemistry I
12
Isomers
Different compounds
having the same
molecular formula
but different
molecular structures
and therefore
different properties
Optical isomers:
their mirror images
are not
superimposable.
![Page 13: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
General Chemistry I
13
Extended Solid-State Ionic Compounds
- Each ion is surrounded
by a group of ions of
opposite charge.
- “NaCl”
- “SiO2”
![Page 14: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
General Chemistry I
14
3.2 THE PERIODIC TABLE
Periodic law: The chemical properties of the elements are periodic
functions of the atomic number Z.
![Page 15: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
General Chemistry I
15
![Page 16: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
General Chemistry I
16
Periodic table places elements in groups (vertically) and
periods (horizontally).
Period 2
Period 3
Period 4
Group 1 Group 18/VIII
Period 5
Period 6
Period 7
![Page 17: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
General Chemistry I
17
Eight groups of main-group elements (I to VIII)
Ten groups of transition-metal elements (1B to VIIIB)
Lanthanide elements (atomic number 57-71)
Actinide elements (atomic number 89-103)
transitionmetals
main groupelements VIII
![Page 18: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
General Chemistry I
18
Physical and Chemical Properties
Metals : metallic luster, good electricity and heat conductivity,
malleability
Nonmetals : poor conductivity, brittleness
Metalloids (or semimetals) : resemble metals in some aspects and
nonmetals in others
metallic
nonmetallic
semimetallic
![Page 19: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
General Chemistry I
19
Group I
alkali metals
Group II
alkaline-earth
metals
Group VI
chalcogensGroup VII
halogens
Group VIII
noble gases
VIII
semiconductors
![Page 20: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
General Chemistry I
20
3.3 FORCES AND POTENTIAL ENERGY IN
ATOMS
By Coulomb’s law,
F(r) = 𝑞1𝑞2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟2
V(r) = 𝑞1𝑞2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟
two charges, q1 and q2, distance r
permittivity of the vacuum, e0 = 8.854x10-12 C2J-1m-1
potential
For Rutherford’s planetary model with central nucleus of +Ze
(e is magnitude of charge) surrounded by Z electrons, the potential
energy associated with each electron,
V(r) = -𝑍𝑒2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟
i.e.) for a hydrogen atom, r = 1 Å
V(1 Å ) = -𝑍𝑒2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟
= - 2.307x10-18 J = -14.40 eV
ex) food calorie: ~1000 cal = 4.1843 kJ
AN: ~6.02 X 1023
electron volt unit eV: kinetic energy
gained by an electron accelerated
through a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.60217646 × 10-19 J.
![Page 21: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
General Chemistry I
21
![Page 22: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
General Chemistry I
22
The force at any point on a potential energy curve F = -𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑟
The force between a proton and an electron,
Fcoul = -𝑑
𝑑𝑟−
𝑍𝑒2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟
= 𝑑
𝑑𝑟
𝑍𝑒2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟
= −𝑍𝑒2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟2
is attractive at all positions and decreases in magnitude with
increasing r.
The total energy (kinetic and potential) of the electron in the
hydrogen atom,
𝐸 =1
2mev
2 -𝑍𝑒2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟
![Page 23: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
General Chemistry I
23
(unbound)
“trapped within a potential well
centered on the proton”
![Page 24: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
General Chemistry I
24
3.4 IONIZATION ENERGIES, THE SHELL
MODEL OF THE ATOM, AND SHIELDING
Ionization energy, IE1
the minimum energy necessary to remove an electron from a neutral
atom in the gas phase and form positively charged ion in the gas phase
X(g) X+(g) + e DE = IE1
DE for ionization reactions is always positive.
![Page 25: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
General Chemistry I
25
- The values increase moving across a period (from left to right), becoming
large for each noble gas atom, and then fall abruptly for the alkali atom
at the beginning of the next period.
![Page 26: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
General Chemistry I
26
X+(g) X2+(g) + e DE = IE2
The second ionization energy, IE2
the minimum energy required to remove a second electron
Shell model for atomic structure
The electrons are grouped into shells based upon the energy required
to remove them from the atom.
The shells correspond to the periods of the periodic table.
i.e.) The first shell with 2e; the second shell with 8e,
and the third shell with 8e
The third, fourth, and higher ionization energies…
![Page 27: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
General Chemistry I
27
- The values increase moving across a period (from left to right), becoming
large for each noble gas atom, and then fall abruptly for the alkali atom
at the beginning of the next period.
![Page 28: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
General Chemistry I
28
![Page 29: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
General Chemistry I
29
The Shell Model of the Atom
For Li with Z = 3,
V = 𝑍𝑒2
4𝜋𝜀0
−1
𝑟1
−1
𝑟2
−1
𝑟3
+𝑒2
4𝜋𝜀0
1
𝑟12
+1
𝑟13
+1
𝑟23
Effective potential energy
Taking into account both the attractive
electron-nuclear forces and the average
of the repulsive force among the electrons.
Veff(r) = -𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒
2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟
![Page 30: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
General Chemistry I
30
The Shell Model of the Atom and Periodic
Behavior in Chemical Bonding
- Electrons in the inner shells (core electrons) do not participate significantly
in the chemical reactions.
- The outmost, partially filled shell (valence shell) contains the electrons
involved in chemical bonding, the valence electrons.
![Page 31: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
General Chemistry I
31
3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY
- An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction,
X(g) + e X-(g) DE = electron attachment energy
- exothermic, Energy is released
Electron affinity, EAX
the energy required to detach the electron from the anion X- and give
the neutral atom
X-(g) X(g) + e DE = EAX
![Page 32: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
General Chemistry I
32
![Page 33: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
General Chemistry I
33
3.6 ELECTRONEGATIVITY: THE TENDENCY
OF ATOMS TO ATTRACT ELECTRONS IN
MOLECULES
Mulliken’s electronegativity scale
- electronegativity: measuring the tendency to attract electrons
EN (Mulliken) = 1
2C (IE1 + EA) C (energy)-1
- Electron acceptors (halogens)
large IE1 + large EA = highly electronegative
- Electron donors (alkali metals)
small IE1 + small EA = electropositve
![Page 34: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
General Chemistry I
34
Pauling’s electronegativity scale
- ionic character: partial charge separation in the bond
- excess bond energy D: ionic character due to partial charge transfer
∆ = ∆𝑬𝑨𝑩 − ∆𝑬𝑨𝑨∆𝑬𝑩𝑩∆𝐸𝐴𝐴 = A-A bond dissociation energy
∆𝐸𝐴𝐴∆𝐸𝐵𝐵 = covalent contribution of A-B
- Electronegativity c
cA – cB = 0.102 D1/2 D in kJ mol-1
![Page 35: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
General Chemistry I
35
Modern electronegativity scale: relatively measured with respect to F
- The nature of the bond
EN difference ~ 0 covalent
0.2 ~ 2 polar covalent
> 2 ionic
![Page 36: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
General Chemistry I
36
CHEMICAL BONDING:
THE CLASSICAL DESCRIPTION
3.8 Ionic Bonding
3.9 Covalent and Polar Covalent Bonding
3.10 Electron Pair Bonds and Lewis Diagrams for
Molecules
3.11 The Shapes of Molecules: Valence Shell
Electron-Pair Theory
3.12 Oxidation Numbers
3.13 Inorganic Nomenclature
3CHAPTER
General Chemistry I
![Page 37: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
General Chemistry I
37
3.8 IONIC BONDING
Lewis model: representing the valence electrons as dots arranged
around the chemical symbol for an atom.
The first four dots are arranged individually around
The four sides of the symbol for each element.
If > 4 valence electrons, dots are then paired.
![Page 38: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
General Chemistry I
38
- Positive and negative ions
- Special stability results when an atom forms an ion whose outermost
shell has the same number of electrons as of a noble-gas atom.
i.e.) H, He: 2; the first few periods: 8 electrons, octet
![Page 39: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
General Chemistry I
39
- Lewis symbols with the formation first of a cation and anion then of
an ionic compound.
![Page 40: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
General Chemistry I
40
- The energetics of formation of an ionic bond from two neutral gas-
phase atoms (for potassium and fluorine),
K K+ + e- DE = IE1 = +419 kJ mol-1
F + e- F- DE = -EA = -328 kJ mol-1
DE∞ = IE1(K) – EA(F) = +91 kJ mol-1
- Although the total potential energy increases, as the atoms approach
with each other, their potential energy becomes negative due to
Coulombic attraction forces.
V(R12) = 𝑞1𝑞2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑅12
(J per ion pair) R12 = the separation of the ions
= 𝑞1𝑞2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑅12
𝑁𝐴
103(kJ mol-1)
![Page 41: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
General Chemistry I
41
![Page 42: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
General Chemistry I
42
- In the potential curve,
V(R12) = Ae-aR12 - B(𝑒)(−𝑒)
𝑅12
+ DE∞
repulsionattraction
coulomb stabilization energy
- Dissociation energy
DEd ≈ -𝑞1𝑞2
4𝜋𝜀0𝑅𝑒
𝑁𝐴
103- DE∞ where DE∞ = IE1(K) – EA(F)
- In the real molecules, all bonds have some degree of covalency,
and each ion shows polarization of the electron density.
![Page 43: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
General Chemistry I
43
3.9 COVALENT AND POLAR COVALENT
BONDING
- Origin of the covalent bond for H2+
internuclear repulsion force
electron-nuclear
attractive force
FAB ∝(+𝑍𝐴𝑒)(+𝑍𝐵𝑒)
𝑅𝐴𝐵2
FAe ∝(−𝑒)(+𝑍𝐴𝑒)
𝑟𝐴𝑒2 FBe ∝
(−𝑒)(+𝑍𝐵𝑒)
𝑟𝐵𝑒2
![Page 44: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
General Chemistry I
44
an electron positioned in
a region that will tend to
pull the nuclei apart
Bonding region to pull the nuclei
together
Antibonding region to pull the nuclei
apart
For H2+, Re = 1.06 Å ,
DEd = 255.5 kJ mol-1
![Page 45: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
General Chemistry I
45
Bond Length: the distance between the nuclei of the two atoms
![Page 46: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
General Chemistry I
46
![Page 47: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
General Chemistry I
47
Bond Energy (or bond dissociation energy), DEd
The energy required to break one mole of the particular bond
i.e.) H2(g) → 2H(g) DE = DEd = 433 kJ mol-1
- Bonds generally grow weaker with increasing atomic number.
i.e.) HF > HCl > HBr> HI
- Bond strength decreases dramatically in the diatomic molecules
from N2 (942 kJ mol-1) to O2 (495 kJ mol-1) to F2 (155 kJ mol-1).
![Page 48: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
General Chemistry I
48
Bond Order
the number of shared electron pairs between the two atoms.
predicted by models of covalent bond formation.
![Page 49: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
General Chemistry I
49
Polar covalent bond
bonds in which there is a partial transfer of charge
not fully ionic nor fully covalent, but instead a mixture
EN difference ~ 0 covalent
0.2 ~ 2 polar covalent
> 2 ionic
Dipole moment, m
m = qR
If two charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign, +q and –q,
are separated by a distance R,
unit: 1 D (debye) = 3.336x10-30 C m
If d is the fraction of a unit charge in a diatomic molecule (q = de),
m(D) = [R(Å )/0.2082 Å ] d
i.e.) HF m = 1.82 D, R = 0.917 Å , d = 0.41
![Page 50: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
General Chemistry I
50
![Page 51: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
General Chemistry I
51
Percent ionic character: degree of full charge (d) x 100%
- The degree of ionic character is reasonably correlated with
the Pauling EN differences.
![Page 52: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
General Chemistry I
52
3.10 ELECTRON PAIR BONDS AND LEWIS
DIAGRAMS FOR MOLECULS
Lewis diagram for the molecule: the valence electrons from each
atoms are redistributed and shared by the two atoms.
Octet rule: Whenever possible, the electrons in a covalent compound
are distributed in such a way that each main group element (except H)
is surrounded by eight electrons (an octet).
For the octet, the atom attains the special stability of a noble-gas shell.
- A shared pair of electrons by a short line (-)
![Page 53: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
General Chemistry I
53
- lone pairs: the unshared electron pairs
![Page 54: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
General Chemistry I
54
For O2,
For N2,
![Page 55: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
General Chemistry I
55
Formal charge: the charge an atom in a molecule would have if
the electrons in this Lewis diagram were divided equally among the
atoms that share them.
formal
charge
number of
valence
electrons
number of
electrons in
lone pairs
number of
electrons in
bonding pairs
= - -1
2
?
![Page 56: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
General Chemistry I
56
Drawing Lewis Diagram
1. Count and add the valence electrons from all the atoms present.
2. Calculate the total number of electrons needed if each atom has
its own noble-gas shell of electrons around it (following octet).
3. Bonding electrons = # in step 2 - # in step 1
4. Assign two bonding electrons to each bond.
5. Assign double or triple bonds.
double bonds for C, N, O, S; triple bonds for C, N, O
6. Assign the remaining electrons as lone pairs to the atoms.
![Page 57: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
General Chemistry I
57
7. Determine the formal charge.
8. If more than one diagram possible, choose the one with the
smallest magnitudes of formal charge, and with any negative
formal charges placed on the most electronegative atoms.
Example 3.9
Write a Lewis electron dot diagram for phosphoryl chloride, POCl3.
Assign formal charges to all the atoms.
![Page 58: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
General Chemistry I
58
Resonance Forms
- For ozone (O3), multiple equivalent Lewis diagrams can be written.
The O-O bonds are identical, with the bond length in between.
Resonance: a hybrid including features of each of the acceptable
individual diagram.
![Page 59: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
General Chemistry I
59
Example 3.10
Draw three resonance forms for the nitrate ion NO3-, and estimate
the bond lengths.
![Page 60: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
General Chemistry I
60
Breakdown of the Octet Rule
Case 1: Odd-Electron Molecules
Case 2: Octet-Deficient Molecules
Case 3: Valence Shell Expansion
![Page 61: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
General Chemistry I
61
3.11 THE SHAPES OF MOLECULES: VALENCE
SHELL ELECTRON-PAIR REPULSION THEORY
H2 SO2
NH3
C2H4O2
![Page 62: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
General Chemistry I
62
The Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)
- Electron pairs in the valence shell of an atom repel each other.
The arrangement depends on the number of electron pairs.
- steric number, SN, determined from the Lewis diagram.
SN = number of atoms
bonded to central atom
number of lone pairs
on central atom+
![Page 63: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
General Chemistry I
64
Generic “VSEPR formula”, AXnEm
- A = central atom; Xn = n atoms bonded to central atom
Em = m lone pairs on central atom
i.e. BF3 (AX3), SO32- (AX3E), CH4 (AX4), PCl5 (AX5)
Rule 1 Regions of high electron concentration (bonds and lone pairs
on the central atom) repel one another and, to minimize their
repulsions, these regions move as far apart as possible while
maintaining the same distance from the central atom.
![Page 64: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
General Chemistry I
65
Rule 2 There is no distinction between single and multiple bonds:
a multiple bond is treated as a single regions of high electron
concentration.
Rule 3 All regions of high electron density, lone pairs and bonds,
are included in a description of the electronic arrangement, but
only the positions of atoms are considered when identifying the
shape of a molecule.
![Page 65: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
General Chemistry I
66
Rule 4 The strength of repulsions are in the order
lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-atom > atom-atom
- AX3E type
- AX4E type
axial equatorial
more stable
seesaw shaped
trigonal
pyramidal
- AX3E2 type
T-shaped
- AX4E2 type
square planar
![Page 66: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
General Chemistry I
67
Predicting a molecular shape of SF4
Step 1 Draw the Lewis structure.
Step 2 Assign the electron arrangement around
the central atom.
Step 3 Identify the molecular shape. AX4E.
Step 4 Allow for distortions.
bent seesaw shape
![Page 67: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
General Chemistry I
68
![Page 68: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
General Chemistry I
69
![Page 69: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
General Chemistry I
70
Dipole moments of polyatomic molecules
By a vector sum of each bond dipoles, non-zero dipole molecules
are polar, and no net dipole molecules are non-polar.
![Page 70: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
General Chemistry I
71
3.12 OXIDATION NUMBERS
1. The oxidation number in a neutral molecule must add up to zero.
2. Alkali-metal atoms = +1, alkaline-earth atoms = +2
3. Fluorine = always -1, halogens = generally -1
4. Hydrogen = +1, except in metal hydride (LiH) = -1
5. Oxygen = -2, except in compounds with O-O bonds.
OF2 H2O2 KO2
+2 -1 +1 -1 +1 -1/2
N2O LiH O2 SO42-
+1 -2 +1 -1 0 +6 -2
![Page 71: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
General Chemistry I
72
![Page 72: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
General Chemistry I
73
- Formal charges are used to identify preferred Lewis diagrams.
Oxidation numbers are used to identify oxidation-reduction reactions.
![Page 73: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
General Chemistry I
74Key question 1: how atoms can form a stable
molecular structure?
Key question 2: what is the
classical atomic model?
![Page 74: CHEMISTRYgencheminkaist.pe.kr/Lecturenotes/CH101/Chap3_2021.pdf · 2021. 2. 15. · 3.5 ELECTRON AFFINITY - An anion is formed by the electron attachment reaction, X(g) + e X-(g)](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062307/612f04401ecc515869432cf9/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
General Chemistry I
75
10 Problem Sets
For Chapter 3,
8, 10, 24, 34, 48, 50, 62, 90, 98, 106