Charu_CR_Notes%28Only if u Feel CR is Biting U%29

8/12/2019 Charu_CR_Notes%28Only if u Feel CR is Biting U%29

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3 Parts of CR Question:1. Stimulus2. Question Stem3. Answer Options

Analyzing the Stimulus:

1. ypes of Stimulus:! Argument: Argument will ha"e premises an# $on$lusion.! %a$t Set: %a$t set will ha"e only premises an# will &O ha"e any $on$lusion.

2. 'earn to i#entify premises an# (ain Con$lusion) *nterme#iate $on$lusion:

! Premise *n#i$ators:+e$ause) sin$e) for) for e,ample) for the reason that) in that

) gi"en that) as in#i$ate# -y) #ue to) owing to this $an -e seen from)e /now this -y

! Con$lusion *n#i$ators: herefore) hen$e) $onse0uently) as a result) so) a$$or#ingly Clearly) must -e that) shows that) $on$lu#e that) follows that) for this reason

! Con$lusion Premise in#i$ators:'oo/ for some patterns su$h as:

herefore) sin$e ) . hus) -e$ause ) . 4en$e) #ue to ) .*n all a-o"e patterns is premise 5e"i#en$e6 an# is $on$lusion.

! A##itional Premise *n#i$ators:%urthermore) (oreo"er) +esi#es) *n a##ition) hat7s more

! Counter Premise *n#i$ators:

+ut) et) 4owe"er) On the other han#) A#mitte#ly) *n $ontrast) Although 8"en though) Still) hereas) *n spite of) 9espite) After all

! Con$lusion Premise *#entifi$ation (etho#:Sometimes $on$lusion or premises are not pre$e#e# -y in#i$ator wor#s.o ta$/le this /in# of situation if you thin/ suppose ; is $on$lusion then put

herefore; or hus; in front of that an# see whether argument ma/es sense.%or premise i#entifi$ation put Sin$e; or gi"en that; -efore .

3. 'earn to rea# fine print:Rea#ing fine print is (OS important on tough CR 0uestions. &e"er generalize.

Quantity *n#i$ators:All) e"ery) most) many) some) se"eral) few) sole) only)not all) none


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(ost F ?1 to 1>> 5a maEority;6Some are not F > to 5also &ot All;6(ost are not F > to > 5at least one;6&one F >

wo of the termsGAll an#NoneGare "ery pre$ise an# thus one or -oth appear in almoste"ery inferen$e$hain. hey represent $onstant states with no un$ertainty. he other terms $o"er a wi#earray ofpossi-ilities) an# for that reason they $an) at times) -e more #iffi$ult to manipulate.

%ormal 'ogi$: 5Re"ersi-le an# *rre"ersi-le relationships6Re"ersi-le Relationships &on!re"ersi-le Relationships&one 5H !!I!! J6 All 5 !! J 6Some 5some6 (ost 56

9ou-le!arrow 5H !! J6

Con#itional Reasoning:*f o$$urs then must o$$ur. *n this senten$e) is $alle#sufficient condition.

is $alle# necessary condition.9iagrammati$ally it is #enote# -y .

*f suffi$ient $on#ition is true then ne$essary $on#ition is true.*f ne$essary $on#ition is not true then suffi$ient $on#ition $an not -e true. 5Contra!positi"e of a-o"e statement6

One thing must -e note# that this is &O a $ausal relationship that is suffi$ient $on#ition

#oes not $ause ne$essary $on#ition.

e must -e a-le to fin# out ne$essary an# suffi$ient $on#ition in the argument.Kenerally following wor#s intro#u$e ne$essary an# suffi$ient $on#itions.

Suffi$ient $on#ition &e$essary Con#ition*f henhen Onlyhene"er Only if8"ery (ustAll Re0uire#

Any LnlessPeople who 8,$ept*n or#er to Lntil

ithout

Lnless 80uation:

*n the $ase of unless); e,$ept); until); an# without); a spe$ial two!step


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pro$ess $alle# the Lnless 80uation is applie# to the #iagram:

1. hate"er term is mo#ifie# -y unless); e,$ept); until); or without;-e$omes the ne$essary $on#ition.

2. he remaining term is negate# an# -e$omes the suffi$ient $on#ition.

%or e,ample) $onsi#er the following:Lnless a person stu#ies) he or she will not re$ei"e an AM.Sin$e unless; mo#ifies a person stu#ies); Stu#y; -e$omes the ne$essary$on#ition. he remain#er) he or she will not re$ei"e an AM); is negate# -y#ropping the not; an# -e$omes he or she will re$ei"e an AM.; hus) thesuffi$ient $on#ition is AM); an# the #iagram is as follows:Suffi$ient &e$essaryAM Stu#y

8ither =ohn or =im will atten# the party.his senten$e means that:

5&ot =ohn6 =im

5&ot =im6=ohn

Cause 8ffe$t Reasoning:Causality o$$urs when one e"ent is sai# to ma/e another o$$ur.here are se"eral wor#s use# -y test ma/ers to in#i$ate $ausality:

Cause# -y

+e$ause ofResponsi-le forReason for'ea#s to*n#u$e# -yPromote# -y9etermine# -yPro#u$e# -yPro#u$t ofPlaye# a role inas a fa$tor in

*s an effe$t of

Causal premise #oes not usually $ontain error -ut $ausal $on$lusion most often has error.

S$enarios that $an lea# to $ausality error:1. One e"ent o$$urs -efore the other.

hen one e"ent o$$urs -efore another e"ent) many people fall into the


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trap of assuming that the first e"ent $ause# the se$on# e"ent. his nee# notalways -e true.

2. wo or more e"ents o$$ur at the same time.hen two e"ents o$$ur simultaneously) many people assume that one

e"ent $ause# the other. hile one e"ent $oul# ha"e $ause# the other) thetwo e"ents $oul# -e the result of a thir# e"ent) or the two e"ents $oul#simply -e $orrelate# -ut one #oes not $ause the other.

*n e"ery argument with $ausal $on$lusion it is -elie"e# that the state# $ause is the only$ause whi$h is responsi-le for the effe$t an# no other $ause is responsi-le.

hene"er we fin# $ausal relationship in $on$lusion of the argument) most often it isfollowe# -y strengthen or wea/en 0uestion.

Causal $on$lusion $an -e atta$/e# in "arious ways: 5ea/en the $ausal $on$lusion6

1. %in# alternate $ause for the state# effe$t.2. Show that e"en when the $ause o$$urs effe$t #oes not o$$ur.3. Show that although effe$t o$$urs $ause #i# not o$$ur.


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un#ermines the author7s position.his type of answer $hoi$e appears more fre0uently as an in$orre$t answer thanany other type. 4ere are e,amples of how this error of reasoning is #es$ri-e# in'SA answer $hoi$es:#epen#ing on the am-iguous use of a /ey term;

it $onfuses two #ifferent meanings of the wor# Nsol"e7 ;relies on interpreting a /ey term in two #ifferent ways;e0ui"o$ates with respe$t to a $entral $on$ept;allows a /ey term to shift in meaning from one use to the ne,t;fails to #efine the term;

2. Source Argument:

Also /nown as an a# hominem) this type of flawe# argument atta$/s the person5or sour$e6 instea# of the argument they a#"an$e. +e$ause the 'SA is$on$erne# solely with argument forms) a spea/er $an ne"er "ali#ly atta$/ the

$hara$ter or moti"es of a person instea#) a spea/er must always atta$/ theargument a#"an$e# -y a person. 4ere is an e,ample:he anti!smo/ing "iews e,presse# -y Senator Smith shoul# -eignore#. After all) Smith himself is a smo/er;A sour$e argument $an ta/e #ifferent forms) in$lu#ing the following:1. %o$using on the moti"es of the sour$e.2. %o$using on the a$tions of the sour$e 5as in the a-o"e e,ample6.*n the real worl#) you will often hear sour$e arguments use# -y $hil#ren an#politi$ians 5the two -eing ali/e in a num-er of ways) of $ourse6.4ere are e,amples of how this error of reasoning is #es$ri-e# in 'SA answer$hoi$es:ma/es an atta$/ on the $hara$ter of opponents;it is #ire$te# against the proponent of a $laim rather than against the$laim itself;he #ire$ts his $riti$ism against the person ma/ing the argument ratherthan #ire$ting it against the argument itself;it #raws $on$lusions a-out the merit of a position an# a-out the $ontentof that position from e"i#en$e a-out the position7s sour$e;assuming that a $laim is false on the groun#s that the person #efen#ingit is of 0uestiona-le $hara$ter;

3. Circular Reasoning:

*n $ir$ular reasoning the author assumes as true what is suppose# to -e pro"e#.Consi#er the following e,ample:his essay is the -est -e$ause it is -etter than all the others.;

*n this e,ample the premise an# the $on$lusion are i#enti$al in meaning. As we/now) the $on$lusion shoul# always follow from the premise. *n the e,amplea-o"e) the premise supports the $on$lusion) -ut the $on$lusion e0ually supports


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the premise) $reating a $ir$ular; situation where you $an mo"e from premise to$on$lusion) an# then -a$/ again to the premise) an# so on. 4ere is anothere,ample: * must -e telling the truth -e$ause *7m not lying.;

4ere are e,amples of how this error of reasoning is #es$ri-e# in 'SA answer

$hoi$es:it assumes what it see/s to esta-lish;argues $ir$ularly -y assuming the $on$lusion is true in stating thepremises;presupposes the truth of what it sets out to pro"e;the argument assumes what it is attempting to #emonstrate;it ta/es for grante# the "ery $laim that it sets out to esta-lish;it offers) in pla$e of support for its $on$lusion) a mere restatement ofthat $on$lusion;

4. rrors of Conditional Reasoning:

&ote that the authors $an either mista/e a ne$essary $on#ition for a suffi$ient$on#ition) or mista/e a suffi$ient $on#ition for a ne$essary $on#ition:

A+ is true

(ista/en Re"ersal: +A is true.

(ista/en &egation: A+ is true.

Confuses a ne$essary $on#ition for a suffi$ient $on#ition:

it treats something that is ne$essary for -ringing a-out a state of affairs

as something that is suffi$ient to -ring a-out a state of affairs;from the assertion that something is ne$essary to a moral or#er) theargument $on$lu#es that that thing is suffi$ient for an element of themoral or#er to -e realize#;

Confuses a suffi$ient $on#ition for a ne$essary $on#ition:

$onfuses a suffi$ient $on#ition with a re0uire# $on#ition;*t is interesting to note the fre0uen$y with whi$h the wor#s suffi$ient; 5or itssynonym assure#;6 or ne$essary; 5or its synonym re0uire#;6 are use# whenanalyzing the answer $hoi$es use# to #es$ri-e $on#itional reasoning. his

o$$urs -e$ause those wor#s perfe$tly $apture the i#ea an# it is #iffi$ult to a"oi#using at least one of those wor#s when #es$ri-ing $on#itionality. his is a hugea#"antage for you: if you i#entify a stimulus with $on#itional reasoning an# areas/e# a %law 0uestion) you $an 0ui$/ly s$an the answers for the one answerthat $ontains suffi$ient); ne$essary); or -oth.

!. "ista#en Cause and ffect:


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1. Assuming a $ausal relationship on the -asis of the se0uen$e of e"ents.mista/es the o-ser"ation that one thing happens after another for proofthat the se$on# thing is the result of the first;mista/es a temporal relationship for a $ausal relationship;2. Assuming a $ausal relationship when only a $orrelation e,ists.

$onfusing the $oin$i#en$e of two e"ents with a $ausal relation -etweenthe two;assumes a $ausal relationship where only a $orrelation has -eenin#i$ate#;3. %ailure to $onsi#er an alternate $ause for the effe$t) or an alternate $ausefor -oth the $ause an# the effe$t.fails to e,$lu#e an alternati"e e,planation for the o-ser"e# effe$t;o"erloo/s the possi-ility that the same thing may $ausally $ontri-ute-oth to e#u$ation an# to goo# health;)>>>per year) an# then ta/ing that money an# using it to re-uil#the e#u$ational system.;Politi$ian +: +ut what you7re saying is that e"eryone shoul# pay higherta,es) an# so your proposal is unfair.;*n the e,ample a-o"e) Politi$ian + re$asts Politi$ian A7s argument unfairly.Politi$ian A in#i$ate# the ta, in$rease woul# apply to those with in$omes o"er2>)>>> where Politi$ian + #istorts that to e"eryone shoul# pay higher ta,es.;4ere are e,amples of how this error of reasoning is #es$ri-e# in 'SA answer$hoi$es:refutes a #istorte# "ersion of an opposing position;mis#es$ri-ing the stu#ent representati"e7s position) there-y ma/ing iteasier to $hallenge;portrays opponents7 "iews as more e,treme than they really are;#istorts the proposal a#"o$ate# -y opponents;

&. 'nternal Contradiction:


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As #is$usse# in the answer /ey to the pre"ious $hapter) an internal $ontra#i$tion5also /nown as a self!$ontra#i$tion6 o$$urs when an author ma/es $onfli$tingstatements. he e,ample use# was:

8"eryone shoul# Eoin our $ountry $lu-. After all) it7s an e,$lusi"e

group that lin/s many of the influential mem-ers of the $ommunity.;he self!$ontra#i$tion o$$urs when the spea/er says 8"eryone shoul# Eoin;an# then follows that -y saying that it is an e,$lusi"e group.; 8,$lusi"e) -y#efinition) means that some people are e,$lu#e#.

(. Appeal )allacies:

hile there are a num-er of appeal; falla$ies that appear in tra#itional logi$5Appeal to %ear) Appeal to %or$e) Appeal to ra#ition) et$.6) the following threeare the most appli$a-le to the 'SA:

1. Appeal to AuthorityAn Appeal to Authority uses the opinion of an authority in an attempt topersua#e the rea#er. he flaw in this form of reasoning is that theauthority may not ha"e rele"ant /nowle#ge or all the informationregar#ing a situation) or there may a #ifferen$e of opinion amonge,perts as to what is true in the $ase. 4ere is an e,ample:

orl#!renowne# neurologist 9r. Samuel 'anghorne says that8+rite ooth Strips are the -est for whitening your teeth. So)you /now if you -uy 8+rite you will soon ha"e the whitestteeth possi-le;he primary #efe$t in this argument is its use of a neurologist as anauthority figure in an area of #entistry. hile 9r. 'anghorne $anreasona-ly -e appeale# to in matters of the -rain) #ental $are woul# -e$onsi#ere# outsi#e the s$ope of his e,pertise.

2. Appeal to Popular OpinionAppeal to &um-ers

his error states that a position is true -e$ause the maEority -elie"es it to-e true. As you /now) arguments are $reate# -y pro"i#ing premises thatsupport a $on$lusion. An appeal to popular opinion #oes not present alogi$al reason for a$$epting a position) Eust an appeal -ase# on num-ers.

3. Appeal to 8motionAn Appeal to 8motion o$$urs when emotions or emotionally!$harge#language is use# in an attempt to persua#e the rea#er. 4ere is ane,ample:Offi$er) please #o not gi"e me a ti$/et for spee#ing. *n the lastmonth *7"e -een fire# from my Eo-) /i$/e# out of my apartment)an# my $ar -ro/e #own. * #on7t #eser"e this


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*. Sur+ey rrors:

he ma/ers of the 'SA -elie"e that sur"eys) when $on#u$te# properly)pro#u$e relia-le results. 4owe"er) sur"eys $an -e in"ali#ate# when either of thefollowing three s$enarios arise:

1. he sur"ey uses a -iase# sample.2. he sur"ey 0uestions are improperly $onstru$te#.*f a sur"ey 0uestion is $onfusing or mislea#ing) the results of the poll$an -e ina$$urate.3. Respon#ents to the sur"ey gi"e ina$$urate responses.

Some of the answer $hoi$es are wor#e# in similar way.

uses e"i#en$e #rawn from a small sample that may well -eunrepresentati"e;generalizes from an unrepresentati"e sample;states a generalization -ase# on a sele$tion that is not representati"e of

the group a-out whi$h the generalization is suppose# to hol# true;

1,. rrors of Composition and -i+ision:

Composition an# #i"ision errors in"ol"e Eu#gments ma#e a-out groups an#parts of a group.An error of $omposition o$$urs when the author attri-utes a $hara$teristi$ ofpart of the group to the group as a whole or to ea$h mem-er of the group. 4ereis an e,ample:8"ery party * atten# is fun an# e,$iting. herefore) my life is fun an#e,$iting.;

whole 5or ea$h mem-er of the whole6 to a part of the group. 4ere is ane,ample:he Lnite# States is the wealthiest $ountry in the worl#. hus) e"eryAmeri$an is wealthy.;

11. )alse Analogy:

As #is$usse# in the answer /ey to the pro-lem set in the pre"ious $hapter) ananalogy is a $omparison -etween two items. A %alse Analogy o$$urs when theauthor uses an analogy that too #issimilar to the original situation to -e

appli$a-le. 4ere is an e,ample:

=ust as a hea"y rainfall $an -e $leansing) the -est approa$h to maintaina healthy relationship is to store up all your petty grie"an$es an# thenunloa# them all at one time on your partner.;

he $omparison in the e,ample fails to $onsi#er that a hea"y rainfall an# anemotionally $harge# situation are fun#amentally #ifferent.


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12. )alse -ilemma:

A %alse 9ilemma assumes that only two $ourses of a$tion are a"aila-le whenthere may -e others. 4ere is an e,ample:

Re$ent a$$i#ents within the oil in#ustry ha"e ma#e safety of operationa $riti$al pu-li$ safety issue. +e$ause the in#ustry $annot -e e,pe$te# topoli$e itself) the go"ernment must step in an# ta/e a$tion.;

he argument a-o"e falsely assumes that only two $ourses of a$tion e,ist:in#ustry self!poli$ing or go"ernment a$tion. +ut this ignores other $ourses ofa$tion) su$h as $onsumer wat$h#og groups.

&um-ers an# Per$entages:

(is$on$eption T1: *n$reasing 9e$reasing per$entages automati$ally lea# to in$reasing #e$reasing num-ers.his hol#s only if the total num-er remains same.

(is$on$eption T2: 'arge num-ers automati$ally mean large per$entages) an# smallnum-ers automati$ally mean small per$entages.

*n 2>>3) Pors$he sol# Eust o"er 1B)>>> $ars in the Lnite# States. hile 1B)>>> is $ertainlya large num-er) it represente# only a-out 1? of 1U of total L.S. $ar sales in 2>>3.Remem-er) the size of a num-er #oes not re"eal anything a-out the per$entage thatnum-er represents unless you /now something a-out the size of the o"erall total that

num-er is #rawn from.

(is$on$eption T3: 'arge per$entages automati$ally mean large num-ers) an# smallper$entages automati$ally mean small num-ers.

his mis$on$eption is the re"erse of (is$on$eption T2. A figure su$h as >U soun#simpressi"ely large) -ut if you ha"e >U of ?) that really isn7t too impressi"e) is itD

or#s use# to intro#u$e numeri$al i#eas:AmountQuantity

SumotalCountally

or#s use# to intro#u$e per$entage i#eas:Per$entProportion


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%ra$tionRatio*n$i#en$e'i/elihoo#Pro-a-ility

SegmentShare

Keneral Strategy:

1. 9etermine whether the stimulus $ontains an argument or if it is only a set of fa$tualstatements.2. *f the stimulus $ontains an argument) i#entify the $on$lusion of the argument. *f thestimulus $ontains a fa$t set) e,amine ea$h fa$t.3. Carefully rea# an# i#entify the 0uestion stem. 9o not assume that $ertain wor#s are

automati$ally asso$iate# with $ertain 0uestion types.


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Opposite answers 5 hese answer options are e,a$tly opposite of what is state#6Re"erse answers 5stimulus states: (any people ha"e some type of se$urity system intheir home. Answer option re"erses mo#ifiers some an# many6.

(ain Point Questions:

his 0uestion type is su-$ategory of (LS +8 RL8 0uestions.Question Stems for this type of 0uestions loo/ li/e:hi$h one of the following most a$$urately e,presses the main$on$lusion of the argumentD;hi$h one of the following most a$$urately e,presses the $on$lusionof the Eournalist7s argumentD;hi$h one of the following most a$$urately restates the main point ofthe passageD;he main point of the argument is that;

his $an also appear as %ill in the -lan/ at the en#:herefore) VVVVVVVVVV.;4en$e) in the new $entury) the sta-ility of a nation7s $ultural i#entitywill li/ely VVVVVVVVVV.;hus) in many $ases) -y $riminals7 $hara$terization of theirsituations) VVVVVVVVVV.;&oti$e the wor#s therefore) thus whi$h in#i$ate that we must supply the $on$lusion.'oo/ at the $lues re"ealing #ire$tion of the argument or author7s intent.

Corre$t Answers:(LS +8 RL8 M Capture (ain point of the argument. Kenerally $orre$t answer isparaphrase# $on$lusion.

*n$orre$t Answers:9o not represent author7s main point or re!state the premises.*f re0uire#) use $on$lusion i#entifi$ation metho#.

ea/en the Argument Questions:1. %o$us on $on$lusion an# premises of the argument.2. Almost all $orre$t responses for wea/en the argument impa$t the $on$lusion.3. Answer $hoi$es are a$$epte# as gi"en) e"en if they -ring in new information. his

is L&'*W8 must -e true main point 0uestions where we $an eliminate theoptions if new information is present.


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@. *n$orre$t answers: *n$orre$t answers are either opposite answers 5Strengthen orneutral 6) Shell Kame 5*n ea/en 0uestions) the Shell Kame is usually use# toatta$/ a $on$lusion that is similar to) -ut slightly #ifferent from) the one presente#in the stimulus6) Out of s$ope answers.

. Answer $hoi$e 586 is a great pla$e for the test ma/ers to pla$e an attra$ti"e

wrong answer -e$ause 586 is the last answer that a stu#ent will rea#) an# the$ontents of 586 re"er-erate; in the test ta/er7s min# an# -egin to soun#reasona-le. *n that same "ein) answer $hoi$e 5A6 is a great pla$e to put the $orre$tanswer if the stimulus is e,$ee#ingly #iffi$ult to un#erstan# or if the 0uestionstem is e,tremely unusual. hyD +e$ause most test ta/ers use the first answer$hoi$e in a #iffi$ult pro-lem to get a han#le on what they are rea#ing an# the typeof answers they will see. *f a pro-lem is tough) it $an -e #iffi$ult to imme#iatelyi#entify answer $hoi$e 5A6 as $orre$t. hen) -y the time they ha"e rea# all fi"eanswers) they are prone to ha"e forgotten the #etails of the first answer $hoi$e.

B. &e"er eliminate the answer Eust -e$ause it loo/s o##.

. o wea/en $on#itional $on$lusion) atta$/ the ne$essary $on#ition -y showing thatne$essary $on#ition nee# not o$$ur for suffi$ient $on#ition to o$$ur.

1>. Personalize the argument.

Strengthen the argument =ustify the $on$lusion Assumption Question:

*n strengthen the argument 0uestions the $orre$t answer $hoi$e woul# support theargument slightly or greatly. *n Eustify the $on$lusion 0uestions when $orre$t answer$hoi$e is a##e# as a##itional premise then it supports the $on$lusion 1>> U. Assumptionis simply unstate# premise.

Strengthen the argument:

1. Strengthen the argument 0uestion stem uses following wor#s:Strengthen) support) helps) most Eustifies

2. 'i/e wea/en 0uestions all the answer $hoi$es are assume# to -e true e"en if they-ring in some new information. Question stem in#i$ates this -y stating whi$h ofthe following if true

3. %in# $on$lusion an# premises. (ost often there will -e some gap of logi$. Corre$tanswer $hoi$e -ri#ges that gap.


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1. *#entify the $on$lusion an# premises of the argument.2. Corre$t answer to this type of 0uestions generally $ontains any new information

that is use# in $on$lusion an# not present in premises. *n a##ition) it #oes not$ontain information $ommon to -oth premises an# $on$lusion.

Assumption Questions:

1. *n terms of suffi$ient an# ne$essary $on#itions) relationship of assumption an#$on$lusion $an -e shown as:

*f $on$lusion is true then assumption must -e true.

Con$lusion Assumption

Contra! positi"e of a-o"e statement gi"es us what we $all 9enial est;.

5 Assumption6 5Con$lusion6

hus if assumption is negate#) argument -rea/s.

2. Xarious possi-le 0uestion stems for assumption 0uestions are:hi$h one of the following is an assumption re0uire# -y the argumenta-o"eD;hi$h one of the following is an assumption upon whi$h the argument#epen#sD;he argument assumes whi$h one of the followingD;he $on$lusion in the passage a-o"e relies on whi$h one of the

following assumptionsD;he position ta/en a-o"e presupposes whi$h one of the followingD;he $on$lusion $ite# #oes not follow unless;

3. (ost useful strategy on assumption 0uestions is: %irst) narrow #own to as manyanswer options as you $an. hen use assumption negation te$hni0ue. &egate theremaining options to $hoose the $orre$t one. Corre$t answer shoul# -rea/ theargument on negation.hile negating the statements it is important to un#erstan# logi$al opposite an#polar opposite.

8.g. * went to -ea$h e"ery#ay last wee/.

'ogi$al &egation: * #i# not go to -ea$h e"ery#ay last wee/. his means that theree,ists at least one #ay on whi$h * #i# not go to -ea$h last wee/.

Polar opposite:* #i# not go to -ea$h any #ay last wee/.


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&egating $on#itional statements:

Statement: *f A o$$urs then + o$$urs. A +

'ogi$al &egation: *f A o$$urs then + #oes not o$$ur. A+

Only one answer hurts the argument on negation. *f two or more options are

foun# to hurt the argument then you ha"e #inge# the 0uestion) go -a$/ an# re!$he$/.


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he argument #eri"es its $on$lusion -y;hi$h one of the following #es$ri-es the te$hni0ue of reasoning use#a-o"eD;hi$h one of the following is an argumentati"e strategy employe# inthe argumentD;

he argument employs whi$h one of the following reasoningte$hni0uesD;Aiesha respon#s to A#am7s argument -y;

2. 8,amine the stru$ture of argument -efore pro$ee#ing to answer $hoi$es.Prephrasing on this type of 0uestions mostly #oesn7t wor/. Lse PO8.

3. (etho# of Reasoning! Argument Part 0uestions: hese 0uestions essentially as/you what role a part of argument plays in the argument. 5his is "ery similar to+ol# %a$e Question6. Question stems for this type of 0uestions loo/ li/e:he $laim that in"entors sometimes ser"e as their own engineers playswhi$h one of the following roles in the argumentD;he statement Nthin/ing ma$hines $losely mo#ele# on the -rain are also

li/ely to fail7 ser"es whi$h one of the following roles in ang7s argumentD;he assertion that a later artist tampere# with Xeronese7s painting ser"es whi$hone of the following fun$tions in the $urator7s argumentD;

>M s$ore you so ri$hly #eser"e. +ut these 0uestions seemto $ause a lot of an,iety among test!ta/ers an# test!ta/ers!to!-e. hyD * thin/ that it is-e$ause these 0uestions are strange an# un$harte#. Approa$hing the +% 0uestion is a -it


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li/e trying to rea# 9ostoe"s/y) in Russian) while stum-ling aroun# in the #ar/) in a roomfull of holes. *t7s #isorienting an# $onfusing an# generally unpleasant. here are no $learreferen$es an# no #e$ent gui#es. e fear the un/nown. e try to a"oi# what we #o notun#erstan#. +ut gi"en our $ommon goal) let7s get to /now the +% 0uestion. 'et7s $ome toun#erstan# it. *f we /now it an# un#erstan# it) then we $an /ill it.

hen you see one of these 0uestions in your a$tual K(A) the first thing you shoul# #ois $ongratulate yourself on ha"ing #one well enough to ha"e -rought the +% $hallengeupon yourself in the first pla$e. *n the final analysis &O getting a +% 0uestion or two#uring the e,am is #efinitely ORS8 than getting them. So) you7re alrea#y #oingsomething right. he /ey is to use what you /now to split the answer $hoi$es. 4ere7s myapproa$h:516 Read the argument. Rea# it 0ui$/ly) as you as/ yourself) hat7s the point hereD;

526 Identify the Main Conclusion. ou7"e got to i#entify the main $on$lusion to

pro$ee#Gthe main $on$lusion is your port of entry; into the +% 0uestion. So) fin# main$on$lusion as 0ui$/ly as possi-le an# note whether it is one of the -ol#e# phrases.536 Go directly to the answer choices. 9o not) * repeat 9O &O) spen# any timetrying to figure out what roles the -ol#e# phrases play within the argument without somei#ea of the terms that are -eing offere# in the answer $hoi$es. *t7s a waste of pre$ioustime.*% the main $on$lusion *S one of the -ol#e# phrases) then fin# the answer $hoi$es thatoffer that option for the respe$ti"e -ol#e# phrase 5first or se$on#6. A signifi$ant num-erof +% 0uestions $an -e answere# $orre$tly with this information A'O&8. *f there is onlyone $hoi$e that mat$hes up with the -ol#e# main $on$lusion then you7re #one. (ar/ itan# mo"e on.

Otherwise

!4a"e a 0ui$/ loo/ through the $hoi$es to #is$o"er what the terms in play 5see -elow6.

5


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Y PremiseGa theory or proposition upon whi$h an argument is -ase# or from whi$h a$on$lusion is #rawnY FactGinformation generally -elie"e# to -e true OR /nown to -e trueGusuallya#"an$e# as e"i#en$e to support a premiseY EvidenceGspe$ifi$ type of fa$t offere# in support of a theory or premise

Y ContextGa frame of referen$e of "alue in the interpretation of aspe$ts of an argumentor the argument7s $omponentsY ConsiderationGa fa$tor 5fa$t6 to -e ta/en into a$$ount in forming a Eu#gment or#e$isionY PositionGa point of "iew or attitu#e a-out an issue or 0uestionY AssumptionGa position or -elief that is ta/en to -e true) without proofY PrincipleGa -asi$ or essential truth 5stronger an# -roa#er than a fa$t6.Y udgmentGan opinion forme# from a $onsi#eration of the fa$ts.5@6 &ow) ta/e ea$h of the remaining $hoi$es one -y one) mat$hing similar parts of ea$hanswer $hoi$e to their respe$ti"e +% phrase) then #is$riminate -etween the #issimilar

parts of ea$h answer $hoi$e an# their respe$ti"e +% phrase. hat shoul# ta/e you the restof the way home.!ets"s face a typical #F CR $uestion%

Environmental organi&ations want to preserve the land surrounding the 'ilgrinn'ilderness Area from residential development( hey plan to #o this -y pur$hasingthat lan# from the farmers who own it. hat plan is ill!$on$ei"e#: if the farmers #i# selltheir lan#) they woul# sell it to the highest -i##er) an# #e"elopers woul# out-i# any other-i##ers. On the other han#) these farmers will never actually sell any of the land)provided that farming it remains via*le( +ut farming will not remain "ia-le if thefarms are left unmo#ernize#) an# most of the farmers la$/ the finan$ial resour$esmo#ernization re0uires. An# that is e,a$tly why a more sensi-le preser"ation strategywoul# -e to assist the farmers to mo#ernize their farms to the e,tent nee#e# to maintain"ia-ility.;*n the argument as a whole) the two *oldfaceproportions play whi$h of the followingrolesD

A. he first presents a goal that the argument reEe$ts as ill!$on$ei"e# the se$on# ise"i#en$e that is presente# as groun#s for that reEe$tion.+. he first presents a goal that the argument $on$lu#es $annot -e attaine# the se$on# isa reason offere# in support of that $on$lusion.C. he first presents a goal that the argument $on$lu#es $an -e attaine# the se$on# is aEu#gment #isputing that $on$lusion.9. he first presents a goal) strategies for a$hie"ing whi$h are -eing e"aluate# in theargument the se$on# is a Eu#gment pro"i#ing a -asis for the argument7s a#"o$a$y of aparti$ular strategy.


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8. he first presents a goal that the argument en#orses the se$on# presents a situationthat the argument $onten#s must -e $hange# if that goal is to -e met in the foreseea-lefuture.

Main Conclusion% A more sensi-le preser"ation strategy woul# -e to assist the farmersto mo#ernize their farms to the e,tent nee#e# to maintain "ia-ility.;So) we #i#n7t lu$/out an# get the answer Eust -y ha"ing i#entifie# the main $on$lusion. &o pro-lem.+erms in play%

A. 516 A goal 5that the argument reEe$ts6526 8"i#en$e 5as groun#s for the reEe$tion6+. 516 A goal 5that the argument Eu#ges as unattaina-le6526 Kroun#s 5support for that Eu#gment6C. 516 A goal 5that the argument Eu#ges as attaina-le6

526 A refutation 5of that Eu#gment69. 516 A goal 5with the strategies for attainment in 0uestion in the argument6526 Reasoning 5for supporting O&8 of the note# strategies68. 516 A goal 5en#orse# -y the argument6526 A fa$tor 5effe$ting the timely attainment of that goal6

+a$/ to the +ol#!%a$e# phrases to determine their relationship to the mainconclusion:

+% 1: Preser"ation of the ilgrinn lan# 5that7s a goal6 FJ he plan is ill!$on$ei"e# 5notthe goal) -ut the plan6 FJ So) the goal is preser"ation of the lan# 5%irst +%6 an# that7salso part of the main $on$lusion FJ First #F is a goal with which the argument*asically agrees FJ A an# + are gone.

+% 2: 9oesn7t really relate to the main $on$lusion) so

Return to the answer $hoi$es an# $onsi#er se$on# +% #es$ription in remaining $hoi$esGC) 9) an# 8 FJ 8 implies that the argument suggests $hanging the approa$h to a goal itsays nothing a-out $hanging a situation of any sort FJ 8 is gone. hat lea"es us with Can# 9.Rea# Choi$e C in its entirety:

516 Says the first +% presents a goal that the argument $on$lu#es $an -e attanine#. &ote,a$tlyGthe argument a$tually $on$lu#es that a different strategy is needed to attainthe goal) not simply that the goal is attaina-le 5so this part of this $hoi$e #oesn7t mat$hthe argument6.


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526 Says the se$on# +% in the argument is a Eu#gment #isputing whether the goal $an -eattaine#. &O) #efinitely notGthe se$on# +% in the argument suggests a reason why onestrategy won7t su$$ee#) -ut has nothing to #o with whether the goal $an -e attaine# 5thispart of this $hoi$e #oesn7t mat$h the argument) at all6 FJ C is gone.

&ow loo/ at the remaining $hoi$e) to ma/e sure it fits:516 Koal) strategies for a$hie"ing un#er $onsi#eration 58S6.526 -asis 5Eu#gement6 for supporting an alternati"e to the earlier plan aime# at a$hie"ingthe same goalGpreser"ation of ilgrinn lan# 58S6.9oneGmar/ it an# mo"e on. hat7s it.

'et7 /now some -asi$ terms to a$e the +% CRs of K(A:

Principle%something fun#amental that we #o not 0uestion. his woul# -e somewhatstronger than a fa$t -e$ause it is not spe$ifi$ to a limite# num-er of $ases -ut instea#)apply to a -roa#er range of s$enarios 5an# often #eeper in meaning6. %or instan$e) youwill not tal/ a-out the prin$iple that $rime is in$reasing in large $ities. *nstea#) it is a fa$twhi$h applies to large $ities. 4owe"er) you will tal/ a-out the prin$iples of Physi$s or thefun#amental prin$iples of 4uman Rights. Prin$iples $on"ey a stronger $onnotation thanmere fa$ts.

Fact: something ta/en as true at fa$e "alue 5stats) histori$al e"ents6

Evidence: what is use# to support a $on$lusion 5e,amples) stats) histori$al e"ents6.Although these may in$lu#e fa$ts) it is usually stronger than fa$ts -e$ause they are #ire$telements nee#e# for the $on$lusion to stan# whereas fa$ts are not ne$essary for the latterto stan#

Pre,evidence: his is a -it of a stret$h. *t will not often -e on the test -ut it seems "erysimilar to Z-a$/groun#Z information as #es$ri-e# -elow.

#ac-ground: 8lements nee#e# to put the e"i#en$e into $onte,t -ut whi$h) as stan# alonepie$es of information) might not $onstitute what is $alle# an evidencene$essary to arri"eat a $on$lusion. %or instan$e) *lood tests performed on one thousand persons mayreveal that ./0 of those persons were 1I2 infected( 1owever) the *ac-ground

information could *e that the test was performed in more under,informed regions of

the world where AI34 -nowledge is at a minimum( As you $an see) the fa$t that thetest was performe# in more un#er!informe# regions is not in an# of itself an e"i#en$e-e$ause it #oes not allow us to $ome to a $on$lusion. *nstea#) the 3?U stats) as a stan#!alone pie$e of info) is what will lea# us to the $on$lusion we want. 4owe"er) the-a$/groun# info is also $ru$ial an# $annot -e omitte# it is re0uire# -a$/groun# info.


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Consideration%Something whi$h was ta/en into a$$ount or gi"en some thought -eforearri"ing at the $on$lusion.

Premise%%or K(A purpose) Premise an# 8"i#en$e are the same.Assumption%Lnstate# information whi$h will lin/ the argument to a logi$al $on$lusion.

ithout this) the argument falls apart.

Inference: Something that might not -e e,pli$itly state# or pro"e#. %or instan$e) youmay say that ?U of K(A test!ta/ers ha"e o"er 3. e $an reasona-ly infer thatAnthony will get more than 3 on his K(A -ase# on the fa$t gi"en.

Argument%Central to e"ery CR 0uestion is the argument. An argument is an or#ere# lineof reasoning $ompose# of premises) assumptions) an# a $on$lusion. Ln#erstan#ing theelements of an argument is essential to performing well in this se$tion.

Conclusion%

he $on$lusion is the en#point of the line of reasoning of an argument. hin/ of it as theresult of the argument. he line of reasoning lea#ing to a $on$lusion is often where errorsin logi$ are ma#e. Con$lusion $an -e #efine# as the last #e#u$tion or $laim

One of the new 0uestion types in K(A CA is the -ol#e# 0uestion in Criti$alReasoning Se$tion. *n su$h argument) one or two senten$es in stimulus are -ol#e#. Asample 0uestion loo/s li/e this.he 0uestion following re0uires you to i#entify the logi$al relationship -etween the-ol#fa$e# senten$es) or how it relates to a parti$ular position 5the author agree or#isagree6.+ol#fa$e 0uestion is totally new on $omputer!-ase# test) -ut is easy to ta$/le. All youha"e to #o is to un#erstan# the argument: i#entify the $on$lusion) e"i#en$e) an# thereasoning from e"i#en$e to $on$lusion. Sometime) you are re0uire# to $riti0ue the"ali#ity of the argument.

#F CRs 'rap,5p%

1. *#entify the $on$lusion. As/ yourself what the $on$lusion is) what the author trying topro"e) or what the author7s main point is.2. 'oo/ for the e"i#en$e that the author uses to support or argue against a position.3. Sear$h for argument indicator to #etermine the relationship -etween e"i#en$e an#$on$lusion.Conclusion Indicators

4o thus therefore as a result

conse$uently accordingly hence imply

conclude that follows that means that infer that

Premise Indicators

because since for as

If assume suppose evidence


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on the basis of the reason is that may be derived from in that

Counter,evidence Indicators

actually despite admittedly except even though nonetheless nevertheless although

however In spite of do may

Charu_CR_Notes%28Only if u Feel CR is Biting U%29

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