CHARMING BEAUTIES AND FRIGHTFUL BEASTS Non-Human Animals in South Asian Myth, Ritual and Folklore

ed by Fabrizio M, Ferrari and Thomas Dàhnhardt

CHARMING BEAUTIES AND FRIGHTFUL BEASTS Non-Human Animals in South Asian Myth, Ritual and Folklore

Edited by Fabrizio M. Ferrari and Thomas Dàhnhardt

The study of non-human animals as other-than-human persons (including animal-spirits and divine animals) has marked a signifìcant shift in the ethics and politics of the academic study of religion. Charming Animals and Frightfui Beasts investigates how South Asian religions, with their sacred narratives, ritual and non-ritual practices and performances, bear witness to the active presence of non-human animals as both culture makers/bearers and symbols of spirituality. W i t h bourgeoning debates on religion, indigeneity, ecotheology and environmentalism, this volume urges for a promotion and an in-depth analysis of the roles and places of animals in South Asian traditions.

The structure of the book reflects that of the most popular collection of folktales on animals in South Asia, the Pancatantra. Such an arrangement creates the backbone for an articulate, clear and reasoned discussion on animals and the concept of animality in different South Asian traditions, or various aspects of the same tradition. Like the originai Sanskrit text, the volume is divided into fi ve books (tantras), each dealing with themes as different as South Asian animals as divine messengers, restorers of order, symbols of cultural identity, exemplary beìngs, spiritual teachers, objects of human reverence and portents symbolizing the life cycle, including its inevitable end.

Fabrizio M. Ferrari is Professor of Religious Studies at the University of Chester.

Thomas Dàhnhardt is Assistant Professor of Hindi Language and Literature in the Department of Asian and North African Studies at the "Ca' Foscari" University of Venice.

Cover image: Elephant, Kumbhalgarh Fort near Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. Photo: Fulvio Biancifìori Cover design: www.hisandhersdesign.co.uk

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First published in book form in 2013. The chapters in this book were previously published in the journal Religions of South Asia, Volume 7, Number 1, 2013.

© Fabrizio M. Ferrari, Thomas Dàhnhardt and contributors 2013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Charming beauties and frightful beasts : non-human animals in south asian myth, ritual and folklore / edited by Fabrizio M. Ferrari and Thomas Dàhnhardt.

pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-908049-58-2 (hb) - ISBN 978-1-908049-59-9 (pb)

1. South Asia—Religion. 2. South Asia—Religious life and customs. 3. Animals—Reiigious aspects. 4. Animals—Folklore. 5. Animals—Mythology—South Asia. I . Ferrari, Fabrizio M. I I . Dàhnhardt, Thomas, 1964-BL1055.C43 2013 202'.12-dc23

2013014202

ISBN: 978 1 908049 58 2 (hardback) ISBN: 978 1 908049 59 9 (paperback)

Typeset by CA Typesetting Ltd, www.publisherservices.co.uk Printed and bound in the UK by Lightning Source UK Ltd. , Mi l ton Keynes and Lightning Source Inc., La Vergne, TN

Contents Preface Acknowledgments I ntroduct ion

First Tantra: Wonder, Monstrosity, Conflict Talking Animals: Explorations i n an Indian Literary Genre

Patrick Oìivelle

Monstrous Animals on Hindu Temples, w i t h Special Reference t o Khajuraho

David Smith

Her Majesty's Servants: The Tame and the W i l d under the British Raj Davide Torri

Second Tantra: Conflict, Ethics, Environment Beware the Crocodile: Female and Male Nature i n Asvaghosa's Saundarananda

Alice Collett

Sparrows and Lions: Fauna i n Sikh Imagery, Symbolism and Ethics Eleanor Nesbitt

Tigers, Tiger Spirits and Were-tigers i n Tribal Orissa Stefano Beggiora

Third Tantra: Environment, Myth, Devotion Falling Rain, Reigning Power i n Reptilian Affairs: The Balancing of Religion and the Environment

Ivette Vargas-O'Bryan

Guardian Spirits, Omens and Meat for the Clans: The Place of Animals among the Apatanis o f Arunachal Pradesh

San't K. Chaudhuri

Karman and Compassion: Animals i n the Jain Universal History Eva De Clercq

v i Charming Beauties and Frightful Beasts

Fourth Tantra: Devotion, Wisdom, Awe Horses t h a t Weep, Birds t h a t Tel i Fortunes: Animals i n South Asian Musl im Ritual and M y t h

David Pinault

Winged Messengers, Feathered Beauties and Beaks o f Divine Wisdom: The Role of Birds i n H i n d i - U r d u Allegorical Love Stories

Thomas Dàhnhardt

The Biggest Star of A l i : The Elephant i n H i n d i Cinema Rachel Dwyer

Fifth Tantra: Awe, Fear, Death Dark Shades of Power. The Crow i n H i n d u and Tantric Religious Traditions

Xenia Zeiler

Fear, Reverence and Ambivalence. Divine Snakes i n Contemporary South India

Amy L. Allocco

The Silent Killer: The Ass as Personification o f Illness i n N o r t h Indian Folklore

Fabrizio M. Ferrari

Index

ra. and Indo-rs o f and the , M e r t o n Col-r ; : r k has

D express my presence and ave accompa-n to the pres-

Dàhnhardt

e, Valerie Hall d praise, to ali ruly enjoyable for the many

tudy.

Introduction THE ANIMAL QUESTION IN SOUTH ASIA: A POST-MODERN PANCATANTRA

Now fine and just actions, which politicai science investigates, admit of much vari-ety and fluctuation of opinion, so that they may be thought to exist only by con­vention, and not by nature.

(Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 1.2)

South Asian scriptures bear witness to m u l t i p l e and contrast ing approach-es to animals and a n i m a i l i fe . Textual injunctions range f r o m abstinence f r o m violence {ahimsà) and absolute respect for a l i l i v i n g beings (e.g. 'Ali l ife is bound together by m u t u a i support and interdependence', Tattvàrthasùtra 5.2l) to the l iberal ization of a n i m a i (human and non-human) sacrifice (Kàlikà Puràna 55.3-6). The debate on the 'animai ' and its place i n the m i c r o - and macro-cosmos has led to countless speculations. Early scriptures i n South Asia c o n f i r m an e n d u r i n g d i lemma. Are animals 'veri ly food' (Taittirìya Brahmano. 3.9.8)? Were animals created for the sake of sacrifice {Manu 5.39)? Should animals be eaten only as medicine {Susruta-samhità, sutrasthàna 46.53-135)? Or should they be respected as embodied beings i n the beginningless samsàra> l ike humans? As we learn f r o m Jha's study on The Myth ofthe Hoìy Cow (2002), several factors (pol i t icai , social, economie and environmental) have contr ibuted to counter the a u t h o r i t y of early Sanskrit sources. The a f f i r m a -t i o n and consolidation of Buddhism and Jainism as w e l l as t h a t o f H i n d u devotional movements c o n t r i b u t e d signif icantly to challenge previous ideas on the animai body. Further to t h a t , new ethoi found t h e i r place i n the Sub-continent . Islam, Sikhism and Christ ianity along w i t h other Indie religions al i made t h e i r contributions to the relation between h u m a n and n o n - h u m a n l i v i n g beings.

Our interest in animals—and therefore the idea behind this work—moves from different premises. Rather than focusing on the scriptural , normative , tradit ions , this special issue of Religion of South Asia intends t o discuss folk narratives and the way they have been expressed and transmitted t h r o u g h l i terature, arts, m y t h and r i t u a l i n South Asia. I n folklore—'a reflex o f the l i fe-style o f a people' (Gramsci 2007: 89)—animals provide the most efficacious and long-lasting imagery for the d e f i n i t i o n and perpetuation of a cultural ly (localized) informed pedagogy. Animals do w h a t we can't (or should not) do. As such, we found de Martino's analysis o f folklore as a way to comment on existential struggle for emancipation extremely useful. And this struggle, in a way or the other, is invariably l inked to manage the ecosystem, an arena

x i i Charming Beauties and Frightful Beasts

where creatures interact and i n f o r n i each other's existence. This is w h a t de M a r t i n o called 'progressive folklore' (1951).

From the Golden Ass o f Apuleius t o the annoying—yet wise—Talking Cricket of Pinocchio, f r o m the Minotaur of Greek mythology to the w o l f of Little Red Riding Hood, f r o m the Planet ofthe Apes to Orwell's Animai Farm, f r o m the m y t h of the vampire t o the snake of the Bible, folktales i n Western culture are r i c h i n parables where animals are the main characters. Sometimes there are h y b r i d beings, half-animal, half-human. Sometimes there is an emphasis on the human versus the animai. Sometimes there are animals that behave like humans, or humans that act as animals (Doniger 2012:350). I n Western narratives, however, what we often have are not j u s t animals, but humans embodied i n an animai (cf. Patton 2006: 34). The 'animality' o f the cricket (or the ass, b u l l , wolf, ape, etc.) manifests itself only when human nature needs a boost, or lacks the skills of the species i t is embodied i n t o . W i t h this i n m i n d , we take f r o m Sahlins who noted that 'Western metaphysics...supposes an opposition between nature and culture that is distinctive of our o w n folklore—and contrastive to the many peo-ples w h o consider that beasts are basically human rather t h a n humans basi-cally beasts. These peoples could know no primordia l "animai nature", let alone one that must be overcome' (2008:2; cf. Ingold 2012:34).

Rather t h a n an encounter, i n the Western m i n d , the human/animai dichot-omy seems to be a clash. Agamben recently observed that the human being historically exists only insofar i t 'transcends and transforms' the animals that support i t (2010:19). By negating its animai nature, the human is f inal ly able t o c o n t r o l and eventually destroy 'animality' . Agamben concludes suggesting that 'man is a fatai disease of the animai' (2010:19).

Mastering 'the animai' is therefore an ontological necessity i n Western (and Westernized) societies. I n other words—as suggested by Derrida (2008: 102)—the animai is not j u s t reif ied, but made into a taboo, an object that is 'at once religiously excluded, kept i n silence, reduced to silence, consecrated, and sacrificed, branded a forbidden or j u s t plain branded'. Hence the creation of allegories—and symbols—where the h u m a n and the animai meet. Such symbols act as pedagogical tools at the convergence of nature (physis) and culture (nómos), but at the same t ime they constantly r e m i n d us of the fragi l -i t y o f the human presence. As de M a r t i n o informs us: 'since the relationship w h i c h constitutes presence is the same relationship that renders culture pos-sible, the threat o f n o t being-here i n human history is configured as the risk o f losing culture and of receding w i t h o u t compensation into nature' (de Mar­t i n o i n Saunders 1995:333).

The tension o f the Western person is determined by the greatest anxiety of a l i , t h a t o f losing everything and being regressed t o nature, a dystopia fea-t u r e d by the impossibil ity o f reason. Such is believed t o be the t e r r i t o r y o f the animai—or the animalistic (sub)human t h a t must be dominated—as opposed t o the organized culture of w h i c h (some) h u m a n beings claim t o be protago-nists (cf. Calarco 2008:129-30).

Introduction XIII

ais is what de

'ajcing Cricket it of Little Red r r r r . :he myth l i r e are r ich i n ere are hybrid , on the human ke humans, or tr .es , however, d i n an animai bull , wolf, ape, lacks the skills

>m Sahlins who een nature and i the many peo-1 humans basi-iture", let alone

'animai dichot-e h u m a n being be animals that n is f inal ly able ìdes suggesting

i i ty i n Western r Derrida (2008: n object that is :e, consecrated, ice the creation mal meet. Such ure (physis) and us of the fragi l -

the relationship lers culture pos-jured as the risk nature' (de Mar-

greatest anxiety a dystopia fea-

e t e r r i t o r y of the ted—as opposed m to be protago-

It has been observed that the difference between animai and human i n Western culture depends on politics and ethics (Waldau 2006: 46), t w o con-cepts that are unmistakably anthropocentric (cf. Wiese 2012). Sahlins responds to that by i n v e r t i n g the established paradigm—the status quo—and offers an interesting interpretat ion of what nómos actually is. I n particular he calls 'realists' those peoples 'who take culture as the originai state o f human existence and the biological species as secondary and conditional ' (2008:104). This has been captured—though i n different ways—by many and diverse con­temporary narratives w i t h the i n t e n t i o n t o criticize m o d e m assumptions or contemporary hegemonic praxis. A good example can be found i n one of the many f i lmic renderings of the 1912 novel Tarzan ofthe Apes by Edgar Rice Burroughs. I n Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord ofthe Apes (1984, directed -by Hugh Hudson), John, the Earl o f Greystoke—formerly a feral boy—can be interpreted as a 'realist' w h e n he mourns Kerchak, the chimpanzee that adopted h i m back i n Africa. Unsurprisingly, i t is not the expression of gr ief that strikes the h u m a n crowd surrounding him—including the killers o f the chimpanzee. What causes outrage is John's desperate cry: 'He was my father!' In so doing, the Earl o f Greystoke is publicly advertising a culture that t r a n -scends species and therefore offends Victor ian values. I n that , we agree w i t h Steiner w h e n he suggests that the 'animai question' should be readdressed moving f r o m the Aristotel ian n o t i o n of physis (2006:126-27).

The only difference is that , perhaps, not ali human beings need t o recon-sider their place i n the w o r l d i n order t o distance themselves by the dramatic conclusion that 'human nature endangers our [human] existence' (Sahlins 2008:112). Besides the colonizing tendency of Western politics and the post-colonial response t o i t (Krishna 2010:251), other interpretations exist (rather, they co-exist). While most polit icai and theological discourses reject h u m a n -animal symbiosis, folklore is about m u l t i p l i c i t y (Deleuze and Guattari 2009: 264, 278; see also Sahlins 1976: 97-98). Indie culture is a good example. I n South Asia the individualization of the h u m a n being and the otherization of the 'animai other' are less definite. The construction of the body is more f lex i -ble. Bodies are porous entities i n w h i c h the essence of beings moves temporar-ily i n t o . Transmigration, possession, embodiment, reincarnation, descent are not mystical concepts related t o an infanti le projection or a secret, supreme, condit ion of the m i n d . What i n South Asia is ordinary reality, i n Western cul ­ture has been relegated to fairy tales, is derogatively labelled 'folklore' and explained as allegory. But as Geertz pointed out: '[t]here are some dragons— "tigers i n red weather"—that deserve to be looked int o ' (2000:63).

So, instead of discussing what animals teach us, we believe that the r i g h t question to ask is: What do we want animals to t e l i us? The study of fo lk­lore offers a valuable perspective t o address such crit icai matter. I n his study on South Asian folklore, Korom (2006: 56-57) has observed that 'wisdom and rat ional i ty are valuable commodities not easily acquired' whi le Stewart noticed t h a t the w o r l d that folk narratives address is 'a pragmatic one, where

x i v Charming Beauties and Frightful Beasts

the need t o m a i n t a i n a proper order requires unusual remedies for equally unusual situations' (2004: 7).

The complex mythology that developed i n South Asia is an ongoing project a iming at integrat ing embodied beings and their actions i n a wider reality. The presence of animals i n folk narratives (but also myths) is n o t u n i n t e n t i o n a l . We use animals t o secure consensus. Animals are like humans b u t do n o t act as humans. What is problematic is the way t h e i r behaviour (i .e. actions) is i n t e r -preted, rendered i n t o words and t h e n passed onto history. Two trends can be thus identi f ied. On the one hand, even t h o u g h 'perfect animals.. .do n o t exist i n the real w o r l d ' (White 1991:16), global consumerism has created the equa-t i o n that animai is anomaly and therefore its nature must be recti f ied. On the other, animai actions continue t o be par t o f the law o f karma, a concept that d i v e l l e calls a 'theodicy, a legit imization o f good and eviF (2009: x x x v i i ) .

I n response t o that , this special issue seeks to identify those areas where South Asian narratives st i l i perpetuate the originai spir i t of animai folklore and t o appraise what has been lost and what has been domesticated. Like the originai Pancatantra (attr ibuted t o the Brahmin Visnusarman, c. 300 CE) , the most popular collection o f folk tales o n animals i n South Asia, this collec-t i o n o f articles is n o t interested i n discussing sectarian understandings and representations of animals and animai l i fe . Rather i t aims t o explore how animality—here intended as other-than-human forms o f embodied life— contr ibuted t o shaping h u m a n paradigms i n South Asia and offered alter­native worldviews. Non-human animals are discussed as bo th subjects and objects, as divine messengers and victims o f sacrifice, as examples t o fol low but also as nefarious omens, as wise counsellors as w e l l as portents , as sym­bols o f wealth , pride and courage but also as signifiers o f disease and decay.

The structure of this special issue reflects that o f the Pancatantra. As i n the originai text , this is divided into five books (Tantras) whose single stories (our chapters) act as sub-strings inscribed i n larger narrative frames. The p r i n c i -pal themes of each book are chained t o the successive so as t o evoke narra­tive cycles. Such a structural arrangement creates the backbone for the main discussion, that is, a crit icai exploration o f animality as perpetuated i n South Asian narratives. Moreover, the thematic subjects chosen for each chapter are meant t o describe the underlying state of m i n d or emotional flavour w h i c h , we feel, is conveyed by every contributor. As the ancient Indian concepts o f rasa (feeling, essence) and dhvani (sound, tone), respectively developed i n Sanskrit aesthetical theory by the sage Bharata (c. second century BCE—second century CE) and by the Kashmiri scholar Ànandavardhana ( n i n t h century CE), each chap­ter is thought of as evoking an aesthetic experience w h i c h leaves an emotional impact on the reader. The peculiar nature o f this impact is determined bo th by the animal(s) protagonist(s) o f each chapter and by the specific way the authors present t h e m t h r o u g h t h e i r circumstantial role and functions. The choice of these themes thus revolves around what we have identif ied as exis-tentia l modes and attitudes, centrai to the human quest o f life.

Introduction XV

The f irst Tantra (Wonder, Monstrosity and Conflict) explores the p o r t e n -tous nature of animals. The three stories here contained exalt the marvel that animals are and their pedagogical role i n humans' life ( d i v e l l e ) , examine t h e i r hidden—perhaps most disturbing—qualities (Smith), and reflect on how they served as a paradigm for another—even more disturbing—domestication enterprise (Torri) .

The second Tantra (Conflict, Ethics and Environment) includes tales o f human struggle i n protect ing animai life t h r o u g h balancing ancestral cul ­ture w i t h the inevitable clash o f t r a d i t i o n and 'modernity' , or simply dif fer­ent worldviews. Animals serve here for the purpose o f i l lustrat ing confl ict ing ideologies on gendered discourses (Collett), o f discussing miracles at the con-vergence of w a r r i o r and saint ethics (Nesbitt) and o f claiming t e r r i t o r i a l k i n -ship w i t h the spirits o f the land (Beggiora).

I n the t h i r d Tantra (Environment, M y t h , Devotion) we learn about the presence of animals i n foundation myths and i n the def ini t ion o f the envi­ronment as social and ancestral t e r r i t o r y , an arena that transcends t ime and space. Non-human animals are holistic healers and controllers o f order and disorder (Vargas-O'Bryan), they are the repositories of a secret knowledge w h i c h is offered to humans t h r o u g h the gift o f t h e i r bodies (Chaudhury) and sources of awareness and compassion for ali l i v i n g beings trapped i n samsàra (De Clercq).

The f o u r t h Tantra (Devotion, Wisdom, Awe) mainly focuses on love. Human beings learn f r o m animai behaviour, and stories where animals are protago-nists contribute to enrich discourses o f piety and loyalty (Pinault), wisdom and passion (Dàhnhardt) and mo r al rectitude and dedication (Dwyer).

I n the f i f t h and last Tantra (Awe, Fear, Death) animality is embodied i n ominous presences. Human amazement towards 'the animai ' is st i l i there, but other feelings emerge. The animai becomes a t o o l to offend and h a r m the enemy (Zeiler), to control anxieties and overcome fears (Allocco) and to tame the tragedy that is disease and its naturai consequence, death (Ferrari).

As a naturai prosecution of the last theme, we wish here t o highl ight t w o i m p o r t a n t aspects that l i n k the h u m a n and the animai dimensions, namely power and fear. Especially i n folklore, these aspects—deeply embedded i n the environment and embodied i n different l i v i n g receptacles—are centrai t o the def ini t ion o f culture. Ponniah has explored these themes i n his analysis o f Tamil folklore (2011:19-35). His w o r k addresses issues of social m o b i l i t y at the intersection of funct ion (the effectiveness o f r i t u a l power) and performance (the power of r i t u a l actor) . Although animals are n o t mentioned, this model is particularly useful for this study. The animals discussed here are functional to r i t u a l and its outcomes but at the same t i me they also are the embodiment of power. W i t h i n that , animals are located between doxa (norms and values unquestionably rooted i n society) and habitus (cultural disposition) (Bronner 2012:34, cf. Goody 2010:93-94). This appears even more clearly w h e n we con-sider the way we look at animals and the way we represent t h e m i n t h a t f l u i d

Charming Beauties and Frightful Beasts

narrative of human needs, joys, reminiscence, fears, anxieties and expecta-tions that is folklore.

The themes discussed i n this special issue of Religions of South Asia—wonder, confl ict , ethics, environment , devotion, wisdom, awe and death—are looked at t h r o u g h the eyes of different species. We thus concur w i t h Clough w h e n he says that: 'Attending carefully to the differences between animals is b o t h a j o y and a responsibility' (2012: 76). Although we may debate about w h o or what originated such m u l t i p l i c i t y of beings (nature, chaos, one or more dei-ties, e t c ) , what eventually this w o r k has sought t o b r i n g is not a convergence o f visions but an appreciation of the way incredulity manifests and compels us to t e l i stories.

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