Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging...

97
Xusheng Liang Elvis Tanyi Xin Zou Supervisor: Dr. Erik Loxbo Examiner: Dr. Sven Johansson Department of Electrical Engineering Blekinge Institute of Technology Karlskrona Sweden 2016 Charging electric cars from solar energy

Transcript of Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging...

Page 1: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

Xusheng Liang

Elvis Tanyi

Xin Zou

Supervisor:

Dr. Erik Loxbo

Examiner:

Dr. Sven Johansson

Department of Electrical Engineering

Blekinge Institute of Technology

Karlskrona

Sweden

2016

Charging electric cars from solar

energy

Page 2: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

2

Abstract

Until now vehicles heavily relied on fossil fuels for power. Now, these

vehicles are rapidly being replaced by electric vehicles and or plug-in hybrid

electric cars. But these electric cars are still faced with the problem of energy

availability because they rely on energy from biomass, hydro power and

wind turbines for electric power generation. The abundance of solar radiation

and its use as power source in electric cars is not only an important decision

but also a necessary condition for eradication of environmental pollution

This study presents a model for charging electric cars from solar energy.

Little focus on detailed technologies involved from solar energy capture to

battery charging but our main focus is how to provide a modified charging

parking lot in Karlskrona city-Sweden .With a surface area of 2900sq. m, we

were able to choose mono crystalline 1STH-350-WH as the right PV

modules. Based on the latitude of our design area, a computed result of 71

degrees angle positioning between solar panel and roof so as to maximise the

surface area and optimise the solar irradiance gathering. Based on the

maximum power output of approximately 294kW these PV modules

generate, we further analysed and selected SDP 30KW inverter, PWM

controller SDC240V-100A and the AGM (BAT412201080) lead acid

storage batteries. Also we provide different car charging method by choosing

the SAE J1772 standard as one of specifications for dedicated vehicle

charging and Clipper Creek HSC-40 as our option of charger. With the data

of the generating solar energy every day, charging time, consuming power,

we can estimate how many cars the system can handle, and how many

electrical vehicles can be charged. Then we can decide whether we need to

use the electrical power from the external power grid.

We finally concluded that, our model is able to generate at least 136kwh

daily energy output in winter, average 823.2kwh daily energy output

throughout a year in theory and it can charge up to 27 electrical vehicles at

once with an average full charging time of up to 6.2 hours. Our model for

charging of electric car batteries is not only supportive but efficient in terms

of extracting solar energy from sunlight to charge electric cars, thus making

the region an eco-friendly place.

Keywords: AC Net, Converter, Controller, Electric Car,

Photovoltaic, Solar Energy, Solar Panel, Storage Battery, Solar Irradiance,

System design

Page 3: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

3

Page 4: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

4

Acknowledgements

We are heartily thankful to our supervisor Dr. Erik Loxbo whose

continuous critics, encouragements, guidance and support from the start of

our work till the final level. His support enabled us to understand not only

the research area but also the scope of our degree program in practical

perspectives.

Also we dully acknowledge the concern and time put in by some of our

programme mates, friends and closes ones to make it a success.

Finally we wish to acknowledge our program director (examiner)

DR. Sven Johansson and all the other teachers for both the theoretical and

practical skills they impacted on us and thus which enabled us in achieving

our task.

Page 5: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

5

Contents

Abstract ....................................................................................... 2

Acknowledgements .................................................................... 4

Contents ...................................................................................... 5

List of figures .............................................................................. 7

List of tables ............................................................................... 8

List of symbols ............................................................................ 9

List of acronyms ....................................................................... 11

1 Chapter: Introduction ...................................................... 12

2 Chapter: Background Theories ....................................... 14

2.1 Reviews Based on Topic of Study .................................................. 14

2.2 Review Based on System Design .................................................... 15

2.2.1 The Solar Panel System ............................................................. 16

2.2.2 The Micro Controller ................................................................. 17

2.2.3 Storage Bateries ......................................................................... 17

2.2.4 Solar Inverters ............................................................................ 18

2.2.5 The Vehicle Charger/ AC Net .................................................... 18

3 Chapter: Aim and Objective Statement ......................... 19

3.1 Problem Statement .......................................................................... 19

3.2 Aim & Objective Statemnt .............................................................. 20

4 Chapter: Solution .............................................................. 21

4.1 Brief Description of the System Design ......................................... 21

4.2 Description of solar panel ............................................................... 22

4.2.1 Types of solar cells ..................................................................... 22

4.2.1.1 Crystalline Silicon cells(c-SI): ............................................ 22

4.2.1.2 Thin-Film Photovoltaic/Solar cells (TFPC/TFSC): ............ 24

4.2.1.3 The third generation / Emerging photovoltaics .................. 26

4.2.2 Calculation ................................................................................. 33

4.2.2.1 Illumination time ................................................................. 33

4.2.2.2 The PV modules Installation ............................................... 35

4.3 Description of controller ................................................................. 45

4.3.1 Different Types of Charge Controller ........................................ 45

Page 6: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

6

4.3.1.1 MPU Controllers ................................................................. 45

4.3.1.2 Pulse Width Modulated (Pwm) ........................................... 45

4.3.1.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller ...................... 46

4.4 Description of storage battery ......................................................... 53

4.4.1 Storage batteries ......................................................................... 53

4.4.2 Lead acid storage battery ........................................................... 53

4.4.3 Lithium Ion storage battery ........................................................ 54

4.4.4 Flow battery ............................................................................... 54

4.4.5 Connection of battery packs ....................................................... 60

4.5 Inverter ............................................................................................ 63

4.5.1 Description of inverter ............................................................... 63

4.5.1.1 String inverters .................................................................... 63

4.5.1.2 Micro Inverters .................................................................... 63

4.5.1.3 Power Optimisers ................................................................ 64

4.6 Utilization of electricity from general AC netwok ......................... 66

4.7 Description of vehical charger ........................................................ 67

4.7.1 Specification of the popular electrical vehicle battery ............... 67

4.7.2 Selection of charging mode ........................................................ 70

4.7.3 SAE J1772 standard charger ...................................................... 71

4.7.4 General Swedish power output analyzes. ................................... 75

4.7.5 Charging time and consuming power ........................................ 76

4.7.5.1 Charging time and consuming power using SAE J1772 level

2 charging ............................................................................ 76

4.7.5.2 Charging time and consuming power using general socket 79

4.7.5.3 Chargers arrangement ......................................................... 80

4.8 Installation cost ............................................................................... 81

4.8.1 Installation cost of our system ................................................... 81

5 Chapter: Conclusion and future work ............................ 85

Reference .................................................................................. 86

Page 7: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

7

List of figures

Figure 4-1 system structure ......................................................................... 21

Figure 4-2 monocrystalline silicon cell [45] ............................................... 22

Figure 4-3 polycristalline silicon cell [46] .................................................. 23

Figure 4-4 Thin-Film solar cell[47] ............................................................ 24

Figure 4-5 A comparism of global market share for PVs[45] .................... 25

Figure 4-6 silicon based cell[47] ................................................................. 26

Figure 4-7 Comparism Of Solar Cell Efficiencies And Choise For Our

Research Project, solar cell efficiencies[53] ............................................... 28

Figure 4-8 the distance between the PV array a horizontal surface ............ 40

Figure 4-9 Connection pattern of each phalanx .......................................... 43

Figure 4-10 PWM controller SDC240V-100A,[69] ................................... 50

Figure 4-11 AGM storage battery[77] ........................................................ 54

Figure 4-12 Connection pattern of battery with the controller ................... 62

Figure 4-13 string inverter[85] .................................................................... 63

Figure 4-14 Micro inverter[85] ................................................................... 64

Figure 4-15 power optimizer[85] ................................................................ 64

Figure 4-16 Utilization of electricity from general AC network ................ 66

Page 8: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

8

List of tables

Table 4-1 Compares of Solar Cell Efficiencies and Choice for Our

Research Project, Compares of solar cell efficiency [54] ........................... 29

Table 4-2 Comparism of different Solar Panel Products Types [55] [56]

[57] [58] ...................................................................................................... 31

Table 4-3 Illumination time ........................................................................ 34

Table 4-4 solar elevation and solar azimuth ............................................... 36

Table 4-5 the size of the PV modules [55] .................................................. 39

Table 4-6 the parameter of the PV module [55] ......................................... 41

Table 4-7 Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident on A Horizontal Surface

(kWh/m2/day)[63]. ..................................................................................... 42

Table 4-8 controller parameters .................................................................. 47

Table 4-9 Detailed specification of the SDC240V-100A controller[73] .... 52

Table 4-10 Compare of the Different Battery Types for Solar Energy

Storage [80] [56] ........................................................................................ 56

Table 4-11 AGM batteries specification ..................................................... 61

Table 4-12 Wikipedia-by Fraunhofer ISE 2014, from: Photovoltaic

Report[86] [87] [88] [89] ............................................................................ 65

Table 4-13 Electrical Vehicle battery specification[90]–[116]. .................. 67

Table 4-14 Specification of SAE J1772 Standard Charging[119]. ............. 73

Table 4-15 HCS-40 electrical specification[120] ....................................... 74

Table 4-16 Standard power output in Sweden[121]. .................................. 75

Table 4-17 Swedish General Plug Type Specification[122]. ...................... 76

Table 4-18 Charging time and consuming power using SAE J1772 level 2

charging[90]–[116] ..................................................................................... 78

Table 4-19 Electrical vehicle charging time and consuming power using

general power socket[90]–[116] ................................................................. 79

Table 4-20 Cost of system .......................................................................... 82

Page 9: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

9

List of symbols

Symbol Quantity Unit

PV Photovoltaic N

W Watt J/s

kW kilowatt 1000 J/s

V Volt

Φ Karlskona latitude ゜

δ Declination angle ゜

τ Hour angle ゜

h solar elevation ゜

γ solar azimuth ゜

𝜏𝜃 sunrise and sunset hour angles ゜

T duration of sunshine h

n the number of days in a year day

Z the installation inclination angle of the

PV array ゜

l the distance between the solar PV arrays cm

𝐶𝑂𝑃 the output capacity of each PV array

each day

Ah

𝐶′𝑃𝑉 the value of the generation of all solar

PV arrays each day

Ah

𝑉𝑃𝑉 the work voltage of the solar PV array V

𝐺′𝑃𝑉 the generation of the all PV arrays kWh

Cw Capacity of battery pack Wh

d Continuous days without sunlight Number of

days

D depth of the storage batteries discharge

level

%

F Amending coefficient of discharge

K Loss between the battery and the

electrical appliance

%

Pm Peak power W

QL Energy quantity can be delivered to the

electrical appliance

Wh

Page 10: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

10

Tm Peak sun hours hours

Page 11: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

11

List of acronyms

Acronym Unfolding

AC Alternating current

DC Direct current

PV Photovoltaic

Page 12: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

12

1 Chapter: Introduction

This project based on Charging Electric Cars from Solar Energy was

carried out at the Blekinge institute of Technology Karlskrona-Sweden.

Presently, developing new types of energy conversion and storage

systems is becoming evident because of increasing human population and

thus greater reliance on energy-based devices for survival. Due to the rapid

increase in the world population and economic expansion geometrically, this

is bringing about rapidly diminishing fossil fuels and the continuously

growing environmental concerns as greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore

with the technological advancements in this modern era, more electronic

devices are being used to replace manpower thus leading to a further increase

in energy consumption.

Energy obtained from the suns radiations when in contact with the earth’s

atmosphere and or surface as irradiances is called solar energy. Presently,

this is known by humans to be the prime renewable energy in existence till

date, the energy produced in day is able of sustaining mankind even when

traditional energy sources gets finished. This readily available

environmentally friendly energy source can easily be obtain via series of

methods as photovoltaic, solar thermal energy, artificial photosynthesis,

solar heating and also solar architecture[1]. Research works have shown that

at the core of the sun, the solar energy is in form of nuclear energy brought

about by continues fusion between hydrogen and helium atoms each second.

Thus as a result of this, it radiates out close to 3.8×1026 joules of solar energy

each second[1].

With the free and abundant solar irradiances that provides enormous times

more energy to the Earth than we consume, photovoltaic processes ensures

that not only sustainable but greater efficiency and reliability to access

electrical power for charging electric cars anywhere around the world

without environmental pollution. With little upkeep, viable approach to self-

charging of electric cars wherever need via photovoltaic processes. Solar

energy thus provides a unique, simple and elegant method of harnessing the

suns energy to provide electric power to electric cars thus taking the world

much step closer to a greener community.

Sweden being one of those unlucky countries with very little(or no) fossil

fuel availability for extraction, coupled with the rapid increase in its

Page 13: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

13

population [2], and also active cars in circulation [3] the demand for

electricity so as to meet up the needs of the local masses is at an increase.

With our focus area Karlskrona in Blekinge Region-Sweden, located at

latitude/longitude: 56°09′41″N15°35′11″E, altitude: 18 m and also having

and an average annual temperature of 7.8 degrees centigrade [4] ,our

conceptual design based on harnessing solar energy to charge electric cars

will not only make the region eco-friendly but also increase the solar energy

availability but also encourage the masses to switch their choices from

traditional cars to electric cars using solar electric power.

The research work begins with a background study where related works

were reviewed. Then, in chapter three, we present the problem statement, our

objectives and main contributions. Furthermore, we present description of

our system design and implementations in chapter four. In chapter five, we

present our conclusion and (or) recommendations.

Finally we end the work with references, appendices and list of figures.

Page 14: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

14

2 Chapter: Background Theories

2.1 Reviews Based on Topic of Study

The negative impacts on climate change on humane lives is already being

experienced and felt in most parts of the word. This has led to leading global

economies (G 8) and other stakeholders stressing on the importance of

renewable energies and immediate reduction of environmental pollutants.

Other researchers argue that renewable energies do not completely stop

climate change [5] whereas some stress that it’s not the only option but a

necessary condition for a greener future [6].Apart from reducing climate

change effect, renewable energies also have greater preferences to other

energy sources. These renewable energy sources are not only reliable but also

provide greater security due to their continuous availability [7] relatively cost

effective than other traditional energy sources [8], and also creates more jobs

and improves economic growth relatively [9].

Research work on how electric cars can be charged using both solar and

wind energy has been going on in the past [10] [11].Here they based their

idea on obtaining the various energy sources mainly by forecasting which

depends on both time and weather of a particular location. That is they stated

that forecasting the future weather conditions will give them the idea on what

energy to generate and save for the car to use in future. But forecast based on

climatic conditions is mostly never accurate or exact. So, this might bring

about shortages or no energy to power the car. Building a design that

conceptually show how solar energy can be easily harnessed, stored and

utilise have not been fully researched on and also considered more realistic

to operate.

In the previous year’s series of authors have shared knowledge and ideas

on how electric cars can be charged via the use of electricity from the grid

which was generated from traditional energy sources as coal, fuel and

hydropower [12] [13]. As more electric vehicles use the grid for power

supply, it is decreases for power to be used for home consumption and other

activities. This brings about imbalance in distribution thus providing poor

power factor and power net instability. Though tighter controls are were put

in place [14], using solar energy with unlimited power supply will serve as

better option since electric cars will be encouraged more to be used and also

providing greener environment.

Page 15: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

15

Also, a handful of researchers have presented scholarly papers on how to

use the optimal daytime charging strategy to charge electric cars using solar

energy [15] since the solar irradiance is at peak during the day, they try to

design an approach on how to fully maximize the energy falling on earth’s

surface at peak hours. It’s an eco-friendly approach of energy harnessing

using PV cells but they did not explain on how the excess energy will be

shared and how energy will be obtained during periods of little or no solar

irradiance. Our research work tries to explain how solar energy can be

harnessed from PV cells to charge electric cars from parking lots thus

providing room for excess energy storage during peak period and also energy

reuse during low periods.

Research on solar cells being integrated into electric vehicles to supply

solar energy has been carried out in the past as well [16] , though they argued

that the energy generated by the intergraded PV cells can be used only when

the battery’s capacity is below optimum. Though it’s a sustainable approach,

the capacity of the cars battery saturation point limits the solar energy capture

of the cars PV setup. Also since the car mostly in motion, to optimise the

energy capture will involve smarter and well advanced system embedded

into the car, thus costly to operate.to reduce this complexity and cost is

simply to use charging via solar panel from a parking lot which is easier and

more convenient.

Also some authors wrote on plug in hybrid electric cars [17] these cars are

seen to use (consume) both petrol and electricity at rates that are based on

the distance travelled and topology of the road. These cars not only increase

environmental pollution but also costly due to their dual engines type.

Furthermore since they are based on blended strategy in terms of their engine

designs faults by one engine reduces the efficiency of the car to travel longer

distances. The use of solar energy to charge electric cars is not only eco-

friendly but secured.

2.2 Review Based on System Design

In this section we briefly state the framework and theories put forth by

other researchers in line with our thesis work.

Page 16: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

16

The conceptual design we developed guided us to understand the

problems and thus providing a guide to solutions [18]. The design consisted

of 6 sub-systems(solar panel, micro controller, storage battery ,inverters, AC

Net and car battery showing how their specific and unique choices were

linked to achieve our objective on charging electric cars using solar energy

we concentrated on how to design modified parking and charging lots.

Since this project describes conceptually how to charge a car using solar

energy, on this section on literature review we will dwell on research works

on each of the subsystems and how they are interrelated.

2.2.1 The Solar Panel System

The sun has been playing numerous roles in humane existence. Not only

supplying energy and light to earth but also used to understand how the other

areas of universe interact .With over 6.3*10^11 watts/sq. meter of solar

radiation produced constantly in the form of rays.as these rays spread from

the sun’s surface their intensity reduce and upon getting to planet earth the

rays becomes parallel in nature [19].

Though most of the rays are being scattered, diffracted and deflected upon

reaching earth’s surface [20] , it’s found that the total solar irradiance

(insolation) that actually absorbed by earth annually is close to 3.8 million

exajoule (EJ) [21] . Thus, solar energy doubles what is produced by all other

non-renewable energy sources annually [22].This brings the abundance of

solar irradiance reaching the earth’s surface for an hourly base unable to be

harnessed by humans and other living organism for a year [23].

Photovoltaic being the interest of study, some authors stressed that the

efficiently harnessed the solar intensity to provide the required solar energy

to drive electric cars heavily relies on; not only the weather condition but

location and time of day [24] the angle the solar irradiance makes with the

solar panels [25], the material (and its temperature properties) used to design

the PV panels [26], and also the aspect of PV surface area design [27] have

to be fully considered.

Page 17: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

17

2.2.2 The Micro Controller

Generating solar energy consist of harnessing the maximum irradiance at

true solar noon. When the solar intensity is maximum, the electric car battery

might be fully charged as well. To save this extra energy that is being

generated photovoltaic charge controllers are needed to redirect the energy

to storage battery cells. Series of microcontrollers used for photovoltaic were

reviewed by other scholars. They did stress that importance of on and off,

Pulse Width and Modulated (PWM) and Maximum Power Tracking micro

controllers for increasing the efficiency of solar power generation. Stating

that the on and off micro controllers operate both in series and shunt modes.

Series controllers basically stop further charging when load is fully charged

while shunt charge controller diverts excess electricity to other loads. On the

other hand, Pulse width modulation (PWM) and maximum power point

tracker (MPPT) technologies are more technologically sophisticated, and

also adjusting charging rates depending on the battery's level, to allow

charging closer to its maximum capacity [28].

2.2.3 Storage Bateries

Batteries in solar applications ought to meet the demands of unstable grid

energy, that is heavy charging and discharging cycles and also irregular full

recharging. There’s a variety of battery types fitted for these unique

requirements. Main subgroups of storage batteries for solar energies

reviewed by others include flow batteries [29], lithium ion batteries [30] and

lead acid batteries [31].Considerations for choosing a battery included the

storage capacity which total energy actually stored with respect to that

retrieved [32], power transmission rate which is time required to extract the

energy stored [33], discharge time based on the maximum time the battery

takes to discharge [34],efficiency as in implying rate of energy released to

that stored as in [35], cycling capacity that’s the number of times that the

battery discharges as designed after successively recharged [36] , cost based

on both operational and investment expenses over the lifespan of the set

storage battery [36] ,disposal effects considering the environmental impact

of the storage battery after its life cycle completion [37] , and finally the self-

discharge rate of the battery in that the rate at which the battery discharges

while idling [38] .

Page 18: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

18

2.2.4 Solar Inverters

The energy harnessed by the solar panels is basically DC. For this to be

used in charging the electric cars or other automobile devices, it has to be

converted to AC current. Solar inverters converts these DC to AC before

charging begins, or the current being channelled to off grid electrical

networks. Thus they have special function in photovoltaic system based on

energy conversion and balanced.

The various types and specifications have been deeply researched on such

as string inverters where panels are placed parallel with central inverter [39],

micro inverters in which solar panels placed serially with separate inverters

[40] and also power optimizers similar to micro inverters but more involved

with monitoring. Power optimizers are used to monitor the total output of the

PV panel arrays so as to continually adjust and modify the load attached in

order the keep the system operational at its peak [40].

2.2.5 The Vehicle Charger/ AC Net

The converted AC current has to be supplied to the power grid or charging

units for the electric cars. Charging of electric cars here based on specify car

and battery types, charger specifications and also the specification of the

socket. In Sweden the standard is 230V, 16A but the power varies with

design setup. Our choice for the electric car battery charging unit based on

the standard set up by the required authorities. We also took measures on the

car design and power consumption rates. All these are based on the power

generated from the PV panels.

Based on our respective sub analysis of the different systems within the

conceptual design, we do believe a well-integrated design linking the

respective systems based on their optimum efficiencies will make the

Karlskrona region not a greener but saver region to live in based on

environmental polluting avoidance

Page 19: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

19

3 Chapter: Aim and Objective Statement

3.1 Problem Statement

There has been rapid increase in levels of oceans due to faster rate of ice

melting in artic, coupled with fast desertification’s in other parts of the

earth’s surface as a result of continues increase in global climate as well.

Looking at the rapid increase in world population and further increase in

number of circulating cars, it’s found that more than 70% of environmental

pollution is caused by cars using traditional source of energy for power [41]

.With the climate change crises becoming a global issue, the continuous

awareness created by learning institutions, government bodies and other

stockholders have to be intensified and implemented [42].

Nowadays, with the global concern for greenhouse gases and

environmental pollution, electrical vehicles are being developed in quick

paces for both private and commercial purposes. At daily use of these cars,

users have to charge the battery of the car once they run out their battery in

the charge station. It takes not short time to fully charge their car. During

charging, user cannot only use their cars but the process creates an imbalance

in power distribution in the grid. Thus it causes poor power factor and power

net instability to other third parties using the grid. Furthermore, some electric

car owners still face the problem of charging their electric cars in some

charging station because of incompatibility between their car batteries and

the charging stations charger. Thus the question of how to charge electric

cars from solar energy has become an important and necessary link to solve

these environmental issues.

Page 20: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

20

3.2 Aim & Objective Statemnt

The main aim of this research work is to provide a system model that can

be used to brainstorm both innovative ideas and solutions to current problems

in the research area and also to serve as eye opener for future research design

and development. Also, it can provide an efficient, effective and sustainable

system based on using photovoltaic as a better renewable energy source to

charge electric cars.

The main objective of our research work is to outline a conceptual design

based on how solar energy from sun (photovoltaic energy) can be used for

charging electric vehicles. We also wish to explore conceptually how

existing parking lots can be modified into solar energy charging points for

charging the cars.

Furthermore, we explored ways on how the PV panels will be placed on

the roof of the parking lot, choice of the various components to convert and

channel the harnessed solar energy to storage battery cell and to charging

points and also the specification of the charging system for both the car

battery and electric charger. Finally we explore how the design can be

implemented in Karlskrona in our study area.

Page 21: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

21

4 Chapter: Solution

4.1 Brief Description of the System Design

System designs are basically structured and modelled representation of

actual systems that show the various steps and components involved

achieving stated goals. These designs also guide researchers to understand

the problems and thus providing a guide to solutions as in [18]. Our design

is presented in Figure 4-2. consisted of 6 sub-systems(solar panel, micro

controller, storage battery ,inverters, AC Net and car battery).it clearly shows

how each of these subsystems are linked to each other furthermore in each

subsystem we clearly analyse the various product components and how our

specific choices were made to achieve our objective on charging electric

cars using solar energy.

The next part of the research work presents detailed analysis of each of

these subsystems.

Controller

Storage Battery

Converter

AC Network

General socket

Kwh

DC

DC

DC

Charging Discharging

AC

Vehicle Charger

Solar Panel

SAE J1772 charge

Figure 4-1 system structure

Page 22: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

22

4.2 Description of solar panel

4.2.1 Types of solar cells

4.2.1.1 Crystalline Silicon cells(c-SI):

These cells produced initially in the 1950s and till date they are most

useful and dominant semiconductor material used nowadays in most

photovoltaic solar cells production [43]. Crystalline silicon solar cells

comprise of different forms but differentiated by their respective purity

degrees. That is, when the silicon molecules are well aligned ,it gives that

particular silicon a better preference over others because solar cells made of

that specie will effectively convert the solar energy into electricity [44].

Crystalline silicon consist of two types; mono and polycrystalline and String

Ribbon silicon cells.

Monocrystalline Silicon solar cells consist of cylindrical ingots and four

sites cut to make silicon wafers. This not only reduces cost but optimize the

performance of the ingots as well. Also, the crystals have a higher power

efficiency rate of up to 20%, smallness in sizes so space efficient and a longer

lifespan of above 25years[45].

Though they have significant edge over other silicon solar panels, they are

relatively costly, more fragile and extreme variation in weather temperatures

quickly affects its efficiency.

Figure 4-2 monocrystalline silicon cell [45]

On the other hand, polycrystalline (p-Si)/multi-crystalline silicon solar

cells (mc-Si) consist of squared ingot wafers. They are less fragile, lower

production cycle and slightly lower heat tolerance factor compared to

Page 23: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

23

monocrystalline solar panels. But, they do have an efficiency of power

generation below 20%, a lower space efficiency and less attractive in terms

of market values.

Figure 4-3 polycristalline silicon cell [46]

While String Ribbon solar cells is another form of multi crystalline silicon

cell production introduced by Evergreen Solar Company. Here high

temperature resistant wires are pulled through molten silicon to produce

polycrystalline ribbon of silicon crystals. It’s less costly than monocrystalline

because its production requires half the amount of silicon as compared to

monocrystalline manufacturing, but it’s inefficient and ineffective because

of lower power efficiency value compared to polycrystalline, and also due to

its lower space efficiency.

Page 24: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

24

4.2.1.2 Thin-Film Photovoltaic/Solar cells

(TFPC/TFSC):

Figure 4-4 Thin-Film solar cell[47]

This solar cell consist of: Organic photovoltaic cells (OPC), Copper

indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS), Amorphous Silicon (a-Si), Cadmium

Telluride (CdTe). They are basically the second generation of solar cells

obtained by the deposition of thin layer(s) of photovoltaic material on a

substrate. Its uniqueness includes simplicity in large scale production,

flexibly in terms of handling and space, and little impact on weather

extremities on its performances. Whereas, space installation is a factor, low

power output compared to monocrystalline cells coupled with shorter

lifespan makes it lower in terms of preference.

Cadmium Telluride(CdTe) is found to be the only thin-film solar panel

that has exceeded the cost efficiency of silicon solar panels with an efficiency

of solar panel being 9-11% [48] .it also has the smallest or lowest energy

payback time [48] .though it has high efficiency and lowest energy pack back

time, its high cost of obtaining the tellurium component and also high toxicity

of cadmium makes its preference uncertain [49].

Furthermore, Amorphous Silicon (a-Si), basically used in small scale

power harnessing, consist of low-cost substrate and very little silicon

material which is nontoxic. It absorbs wide ranges of light spectrum thus

functions well in almost all hours of days and irrespective of temperature

variations. But its power output is very small(though can be improved by

stacking) and also it has a shorter effective lifespan of less than a year [50].

Page 25: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

25

Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS) having a lab efficiency of

above 20%, it uses an absorber consisting of copper, indium, gallium and

selenide.it is produced via a process of vacuum extraction and co-evaporation

and sputtering. Presently most promising with respect to the others [48]

Figure 4-5 A comparism of global market share for PVs[45]

Page 26: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

4.2.1.3 The third generation / Emerging photovoltaics

Figure 4-6 silicon based cell[47]

Page 27: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

These are a group of thin-film photovoltaic that uses both inorganic and

organometallic materials. Presently they still possess lower efficiencies and

lifespan still shorter as well. This includes;

Copper Zinc tin sulphide solar cell (CTZTS), Dye-sensitized solar cell,

Polymer solar cell, Quantum dot solar cell, Perovkite solar cell, amongst all

listed above, the Dye –sensitized solar cell has the highest solar conversion

efficiency with about 11% because they are built with only thin layers of

conductive plastic in front layer, thus this allows them to radiate some heat

away easily and quicker. Thus, suitable for lower internal temperatures[51].

Unlike fragile silicon cells that are protected from external surfaces via

glasses and which increases internal temperatures of the silicon cells causing

a drop in efficiency. Despite the proses of dye solar cells, the use of liquid

electrolyte leads to environmental temperature stability issues because at

extremely cold temperatures, the electrolytes freezes and power generation

stops while higher temperatures can cause the liquid expansion and

destruction of cell internal designs as well.

Base on figure 4-7 below that shows the comparism of solar cell

efficiencies and choice for our research project, we found that multi-junction

cells do have the highest energy efficiency conversion rates as compared to

the other cell types. But due to their high cost of production and

installations[52],we could not integrate into our system. Presently they are

mostly applied in astronomical applications as satellite launching. So, we are

left with a choice based on silicon, thin-film and third generation

photovoltaic cells as in table 4-1.

Table 4-1 shows a Comparism of solar cell efficiencies and choice for our

research project based on a confirmed terrestrial cell and sub module

efficiencies measured under the global AM1.5 Spectrum. From the table we

clearly found that silicon cells do have relatively higher cell efficiency and

fill factor as well.

Thus, it is a better choice for our research work.

Page 28: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

Figure 4-7 Comparism Of Solar Cell Efficiencies And Choise For Our Research Project, solar cell

efficiencies[53]

Page 29: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

29

Table 4-1 Compares of Solar Cell Efficiencies and Choice for Our Research Project, Compares of solar cell

efficiency [54]

TITLE CONFIRMED TERRESTRIAL CELL AND SUBMODULE EFFICIENCIES MEASURED UNDER THE GLOBAL AM1.5 SPECTRUM (1000 W/M2) AT 25 °C (IEC 60904-3: 2008, ASTM G-173-03 GLOBAL).

CLASSIFICATION EFFICIENCY (%) AREA(SQ.CM) VOC(V) JSC(MA/SQ.CM) FILL FACTOR (%)

SILICON:

Si(crystalline) 25.6 ± 0.5 143.7 (da) 0.740 41.8 82.7

Si(multi-crystalline) 20.8 ± 0.6

243.9 (ap) 0.6626 39.03 80.3

Si(thin transfer submodule) 21.2 ± 0.4 239.7 (ap) 0.687 38.50 80.3

Si(thin film minimodule) 10.5 ± 0.3 94.0 (ap) 0.492 29.7 72.1

111 V CELLS:

GaAs (thin film) 28.8 ± 0.9 0.9927 (ap) 1.122 29.68 86.5

GaAs (multicrystalline) 18.4+-0.5 18.4 ± 0.5 4.011 23.2 79.7

InP (crystalline) 22.1 ± 0.7 4.024.02 0.878 29.5 85.4

THIN FILM CHALCOGENIDE:

CIGS (cell) 20.5 ± 0.6 0.9882 (ap) 0.752 35.3 77.2

CIGS (minimodule) 18.7 ± 0.6 15.892 (da) 0.701 35.29 75.6

CdTe (cell) 21.0 ± 0.4 1.0623 (ap) 0.8759 30.25 79.4

AMORPHOUS/MICROCRYSTALLINE

Si (amorphous) 10.2 ± 0.3 1.001 (da) 0.896 16.36 69.8

Si (microcrystalline) 11.4 ± 0.3 1.046 (da) 0.535 29.07 73.1

DYE SENSITISED:

Dye 11.9 ± 0.4 1.005 (da) 0.744 22.47 71.2

Dye (minimodule) 10.0 ± 0.4 24.19(da) 0.718 20.46 67.7

Page 30: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

30

Dye (submodule) 8.8 ± 0.3 398.8 (da) 0.697 18.42 68.7

ORGANIC:

Organic thin-film 11.0 ± 0.3 0.993(da) 0.793 19.40 71.4

Organic (minimodule) 9.5 ± 0.3 25.05(da) 0.789 17.01 70.9

MULTIJUNCTION DEVICES:

InGaP/GaAs/InGaAs 37.9 ± 1.2 1.047 (ap) 3.065 14.27 86.7

a-Si/nc-Si/nc-Si (thin-film) 13.4 ± 0.4 1.006 (ap) 1.963 9.52 71.9

a-Si/nc-Si (thin-film cell) 12.7+-0.4 1.000(da) 1.342 13.45 70.2

(da) = designated illumination area; (ap) = aperture area

Page 31: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

31

Table 4-2 Comparism of different Solar Panel Products Types [55] [56] [57] [58]

TITLE Comparism of different Solar Panel Products Types [55] [56] [57] [58]

Classification Cost

(/Wp)

Power

rating(W)

Vmp(V) Imp(A) Power

Tolerance

(%)

Number

Cells

Voltage

(Vmax)

Efficiency

(%/Years)

Temp

Coeff.

Dimension (mm)

Crystalline Silicon cells(c-SI):

M-Si

(1SolTech

1STH-350-WH

(350W)

$1.05 350 42.98 8.13 3 60 1000 16.22/25 -0.48%/K 1652*1306*50

P-Si(JY250M) $0.05 250 29.6 8.45 2 72 1000 15.3/25 1650*992*40

String Ribbon

(Evergreen 210

W, ES-A Series)

$1.05 210 18.1 11.05 5 - 600 13.4/25 1650.5*951.3*46

Thin-Film Photovoltaic/Solar cells(TFPC/TFSC): [59] [60] [61]

CIS/CIGS(BP-

M-F380 CIGS)

$1.76 380 31.5 12.06 5 75 1000 16.6/25 (-40 to 85ºC)

2598*1000*17mm

a-Si/(OYD-250) $0.54

-0.6

250 38 8.54 3 60 1000 17/25 –40˚C to

85˚C)

1640*990*40

Page 32: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

32

CdTe(DM 77W

CdTe-2)

$0.86 80 16.8 4.58 - - 1000 12/25 -0.21(Pm) 1200*6000*6.8

The third generation / Emerging photovoltaics[62]

dye solar cell SI-SPM250W

$0.6 250 30.30 8.25 -0.03 60 1000 15.37/25 -0.45%/°C

1650*990*50

156*156(cell)

Page 33: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

Based on the data obtained from Table 4-2 above, we decided to

choose the silicon crystalline solar (Specifically 1STH-350-WH solar

panels) panel to design the solar panel. this is due to the fact that is has an

efficiency of more than 25% with over 41 J in terms of power generated

per square meter. Furthermore, with a fill factor of over 82 %( that is ratio

of the solar cells actual power output to its dummy output) over an area of

143.7 sq. metre. [27].

4.2.2 Calculation

4.2.2.1 Illumination time

Because of the high latitude in Karlskona, the disparity of duration of

sunshine is large, in order to increase the role of solar PV modules, we have

to know the illumination time by calculating the declination angle of the sun,

and calculate the solar elevation and the solar azimuth to decide the distance

between each PV panels, in order to make each component can exposure to

the sun fully and completely to increase utilization. Then according to the

karlskona latitude to adjust the inclination of the solar panels, make the

sunlight vertical irradiate on the solar PV modules as much as possible, to

make the radiation reaches the maximum, increase power output.

First, we seek the latitude of Karlskona the map. Karlskona latitude

Φ=56.16゜

Then, we collect declination angle of some few special dates and whole

summer.

According to those data, we can calculate the declination angle1,

δ = 23.45° × sin(360° ×284+𝑛

365)

Where n is the number of days in a year.

Then Sunrise and sunset hour angles,

cos τ𝜃 = − tan 𝜙 tan 𝛿

1 angle between the sun rays and earth equatorial plane

Page 34: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

34

or

𝜏𝜃 = cos−1(− tan 𝛿 tan 𝜙)

𝜏𝜃 is the angle of sunrise or sunset; positive angle is at sunset, negative

angle is at sunrise.

Following other data, then we can calculate the duration of sunshine with

any season, any day length latitude.

Duration of sunshine

Τ =2

15°cos−1(− tan 𝛿 tan 𝜙) =

2

15°𝜏𝜃

Table 4-3 Illumination time

karls

kona

data n(d

ay)

δ

(゜) cos𝜏𝜃

𝜏𝜃(

゜)

the

angle

of

sunris

e(゜)

the

angle

of

sunset

(゜)

illumin

ation

time

(hour)

2010/3

/21 80

-

0.403

653

0.0

1

89.

44 -89.44 89.44 12

2010/6

/22 173

23.44

8046

-

0.6

5

130

.38

-

130.38 130.38 17

latit

ude

2010/6

/30 181

23.18

4489

-

0.6

4

129

.77

-

129.77 129.77 17

φ= 2010/7

/14 195

21.67

4617

-

0.5

9

126

.42

-

126.42 126.42 17

56.16 2010/7

/29 210

18.67

0488

-

0.5

0

120

.33

-

120.33 120.33 16

Page 35: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

35

2010/8

/12 224

14.74

4488

-

0.3

9

113

.17

-

113.17 113.17 15

2010/8

/27 239

9.599

3972

-

0.2

5

104

.66

-

104.66 104.66 14

2010/9

/23 266

-

1.008

871

0.0

3

88.

54 -88.54 88.54 12

2010/1

2/22 356

-

23.44

457

0.6

5

49.

72 -49.72 49.72 7

Based on the Table 4-3, we know illumination time in one day; it will help

us to calculate the average power in the whole year.

4.2.2.2 The PV modules Installation

Next, in order to decide the distance between each PV panels, we should

know about solar elevation and solar azimuth.

First, hour angle τ = ωt

It is defined as: at noon when τ= 0, every 1 hour plus 15゜, morning is

positive, afternoon is negative. For example, at 10:00, t=2, τ=30゜, at

14:00, t=2, τ=-30゜

the solar elevation2,

sin ℎ = sin 𝛿 sin 𝜙 + cos 𝛿 cos 𝜙 cos 𝜏

the solar azimuth3,

sin 𝛾 =cos 𝛿 sin 𝜏

cos ℎ

2 the angle between center of the sun light direct to the ground and the local plant, solar

elevation angle is an important factor on the strength of the solar that ground can gain. 3 the angle between the projection of the sunlight on the ground plane and south of the local

meridian, it means that it represents the sun position, decided the direction of the incident sunlight.

Page 36: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

36

Table 4-4 solar elevation and solar azimuth

Page 37: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

37

karlsko

na

data n(day

) δ(゜) time

τ

(゜) h(゜) γ(゜)

2010/3/2

1 80

-

0.40365

3

12:0

0 0 0.000 0

14:0

0 -30

26.01

3

-

33.8209

2010/6/2

2 173

23.4480

46

12:0

0 0

57.31

7 0

14:0

0 -30

60.01

5

-

66.6459

latitude 2010/6/3

0 181

23.1844

89

10:0

0 30

50.40

8

46.1759

2

12:0

0 0

57.05

3 0

14:0

0 -30

50.40

8

-

46.1759

16:0

0 -60

35.67

6

-

78.5652

φ= 2010/7/1

4 195

21.6746

17

10:0

0 30

49.04

5

45.1667

6

12:0

0 0

55.54

3 0

14:0

0 -30

49.04

5

-

45.1668

16:0

0 -60

34.45

6

-

77.4679

56.16

2010/7/2

9 210

18.6704

88

10:0

0 30

46.30

8

43.3150

5

12:0

0 0

52.53

7 0

14:0

0 -30

46.30

8

-

43.3151

16:0

0 -60

32.00

0

-

75.3814

2010/8/1

2 224

14.7444

88

10:0

0 30

42.69

2

41.1580

8

12:0

0 0

48.60

9 0

Page 38: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

38

14:0

0 -30

42.69

2

-

41.1581

16:0

0 -60

28.93

1

-

73.1604

2010/8/2

7 239

9.59939

72

10:0

0 30

37.90

0

38.6853

6

12:0

0 0

43.46

1 0

14:0

0 -30

37.90

0

-

38.6854

16:0

0 -60

24.40

9

-

69.7061

2010/9/2

3 266

-

1.00887

1

12:0

0 0

32.84

8 0

14:0

0 -30

27.89

1

-

34.4632

10:0

0 30 6.433

27.5062

7

2010/12/

22 356

-

23.4445

7

12:0

0 0

10.40

1 0

14:0

0 -30 6.433

-

27.5063

Different latitude, the sun irradiation direction angle of the sun to the

ground is different, in order to obtain much more solar irradiance, the

inclination of the PV array is different. It can be roughly achieved the

installation inclination angle of the PV array depended on the local latitude:

When =0~25, the installation inclination angle of the PV array is Z=;

When =26~40, the installation inclination angle of the PV array isZ =∅ + (5°~10°);

When =41~55, the installation inclination angle of the PV array isZ =∅ + (10°~15°);

When =>55, the installation inclination angle of the PV array isZ = ∅ +

(15°~20°).

The latitude in Karlskona is ∅ = 56.16°

Oblique angle Z=Φ+15゜=71゜

Page 39: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

39

Because the oblique angle is too large, if we install it in a horizontal plane,

it will be unstable, so we decide to mount it on the roof with the angle of 30

゜.

Table 4-5 the size of the PV modules [55]

Manufacturer Model

Length

(in.)

Width

(in.)

1SolTech 1STH-350-WH 65.0 51.4

Now, we use the size of the solar PV module is 1STH-350-WH, its width

is 51.4inch, is about 130.556cm.

Before the installation, we should splice the solar PV modules into the

solar PV array.

We decide the total area of the roof of our car park is 50 * 58M, since the

inclination angle is 41゜ , in order to prevent the solar phalanx broken for

the large volume, I design to place on 10 * 4 solar phalanx, each phalanx

consists of 3*7 solar PV modules.

Considering about the 3*7 PV array is large, so we decide to put all of

them on the roof, not to build them up, and use longer wires to connect with

series and parallel.

So W = 130.556cm. Using this data and the installation inclination angle of

the PV array we can know the actual height of the solar panel H′.

H′ = 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑍 = 130.556𝑠𝑖𝑛71° = 123.4431𝑐𝑚

In order to make solar panels radiate heat, solar panels will be elevated

10cm

H = H′ +10

𝐶𝑂𝑆(30°)= 134.9905𝑐𝑚

In order to make sure the solar panels can work well whole year, we adopt

the data of solar elevation angle and azimuth angle on winter solstice

(December 22) at noon, because this time the solar elevation is the lowest in

whole year, at this time if the sunlight can shine on the PV modules shows

that whole year achieve the requirement.

At this time, according to the Table 4-4, we know:

Page 40: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

40

h = 10.39527°

L = H/tanh =134.9905

tan(10.39527°)= 735.8473𝑐𝑚

γ = 0°

D = Lcosγ = L = 735.8473cm

Figure 4-8 the distance between the PV array a horizontal surface

a = Wcos71° = 42.50488cm

ℒ = a + D = 778.3522cm

b + ℓ =

ℒ𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑡𝑎𝑛30° + 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ

𝑐𝑜𝑠30°= 216.716𝑐𝑚

b = Wcos41° = 98.532cm

ℓ = 216.716 − 98.532 = 118.1841cm

So, at the end, we calculate the distance between the solar PV arrays is

about 1.18m.

Page 41: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

41

For the fixed installation in northern hemisphere, as long as setting in

about south 20゜, the power generation capacity will not be affected any

more. Considering about using in winter, the solar panels can be set south 20

゜, the peak of the solar generation will appear in the afternoon, and this will

help increasing the generation in winter.

In conclusion, we will set the PV modules on a roof with 30゜ , the

installation inclination angle is 41゜, west 20゜, and the distance between

the PV array is1.18m.

The capacity of solar modules

Table 4-6 the parameter of the PV module [55]

Manufacturer Model

Rated

power

@ STC

(W)

Rated

power

@

PTC

(W)

Max.

power

voltage

(Vmp)

Max.

power

current

(Imp)

1SolTech 1STH-350-WH 350 309.1 42.98 8.13

Page 42: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

42

Table 4-6 is the parameter of the solar PV module 1STH-350-WH, according

to our design about 3*7 solar PV modules, we can calculate how many

energy each solar PV array provide.

Frist, we should know about the output capacity of each PV array each day

(Cop), it’s the product of the lowest monthly averaged insolation incident in

a year and the maximum power current.

Table 4-7 Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident on A Horizontal

Surface (kWh/m2/day)[63].

Lat

56.16

Lon

15.58

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annua

l

Avera

ge

22-

year

Avera

ge

0.6

0

1.2

8

2.5

0

3.8

8

5.1

5

5.2

8

5.1

2

4.3

3

2.8

0

1.4

3

0.7

4

0.4

6

2.80

The lowest monthly averaged insolation incident in a year is 0.46 kWh 𝑚2⁄

𝐶𝑜𝑝 = 0.46h × 8.13A = 3.7398A ∙ h

Page 43: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

43

Figure 4-9 Connection pattern of each phalanx

Figure 4-9 presents the connection pattern of each phalanx, the output

voltage, output current and electric quantity can be calculated according this

structure.

Then, we can calculate the generation of one solar PV array each day,the output power on each day multiply 3(parallel number) is the value of the

generation of all solar PV arrays each day (C′PV),

𝐶′𝑃𝑉 =𝐶𝑜𝑝 × 3

1.11 × 0.9= 11.23063𝐴 ∙ ℎ

Page 44: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

44

Where, 1.11 is the efficiency of charge the battery by solar PV modules;

0.9 is correction factors of the loss of PV modules caused by the attenuation

of the solar PV modules and dust.

So, all PV arrays can provide 12𝐴ℎ every day.

A ∙ h is the unit of the storage battery, so now we should count the voltage

of the PV array to converted Ah into kWh.

Then, we will calculate the work voltage of the solar PV array (𝑉𝑃𝑉), it is

the product of the maximum of power voltage and series number.

𝑉𝑃𝑉 = 42.98𝑣 × 7 = 300.86𝑣

The value of the work voltage of the solar PV array is 301V.

At the end, we can know the power of one solar PV array (𝑃𝑃𝑉),

𝐺𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶′𝑃𝑉 × 𝑉𝑃𝑉 = 3378.848𝑊 ∙ ℎ = 3.378𝑘𝑊 ∙ ℎ

And we have 10*4 solar PV arrays in the roof, so they will provide about

𝐺𝑃𝑉′ = 40 × 𝑃𝑃𝑉 = 135.154𝑘𝑊 ∙ ℎ

At the end, we calculated the generation of the all PV arrays is 136 kWh

every day.

Page 45: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

45

4.3 Description of controller

4.3.1 Different Types of Charge Controller

Microcontrollers or solar battery regulators are electronic devices used to

regulate the flow of electric current or voltage between to electric batteries.

Its basic functions involved preventing complete discharge or over charging

of batteries so a main tool in protecting batteries life. The term charge

controller or regulator may be referred to either a standalone device or an

integrated circuit attached to the battery system.

There are basically three sets of solar battery micro controllers; MPU

controllers, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Controller, and Maximum

Power Point Tracking Controller.

4.3.1.1 MPU Controllers

These are the first generation of PV charge controllers performing one

way operations. They involve the Series regulators, shunt charge controllers

and the simple charge controller. Series regulators mainly disable further

current from flowing into batteries when fully charged while shunt charge

controllers diverts excess electricity from a fully charged battery to auxiliary

load (loads). Furthermore, simple charge controllers basically stop to charge

a battery when they exceed their specified voltage level and they further re-

enable the charging process when the battery voltage gets below their

specified minimum voltage levels [28] .some of the benefits of using on and

off controller is that it’s very simple to operate, efficient with little heating,

and also it operation help saves battery life since it prevent over and under

charging of the battery. Recharging of battery by this controller is slower as

compared to PWM controllers.

4.3.1.2 Pulse Width Modulated (Pwm)

PWM basically uses higher voltage spikes in forwarding the charged

current from the solar panels to the storage batteries. Some designs have

output voltage pre-set so that they can be set for the particular battery in use.it

also recharges batteries faster than on and off controllers.

Page 46: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

46

One of the problems using the PWM controller is that most 12V units need

at least 8V at the battery before they can function properly.so if a storage

battery has been discharged below that value it will be difficult for the PWM

controller to transfer the power irrespective of the amount being generated

by the solar panels. Also some micron rollers have internal heat sink that

reduces the total power from solar panels to storage batteries.

4.3.1.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller

It’s a micro controller set up to allow high voltage PV modules to charge

batteries with lower voltage capacities. The controller indirectly hides the

batteries from the PV solar modules thus supporting the batteries to operate

at their optimum.in extreme climatic conditions, this controller still extract

the most energy from the PV modules. Also it can operate efficiently even

when it is separated some distance from the panels .The prime problem is

that, in very low light levels such as early mornings or when sun sets, the

controller might relay little or no power to the storage batteries.

Page 47: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

Table 4-8 controller parameters

paramet

er

type

price rated

voltage

maximum

charging

current

Self-

consu

mptio

n

Full char

ge cut

Low-

voltage cut

working

tempera

ture

Floode

d

chargin

g

voltage

Temp.

compensati

on

MPU controller [64] [65]

SC4060/

50A

$168

.00 48V ≤50A

25MA 54.8V 43.2V

-25℃

~+45℃ 54.8V

-3MV/℃

/CELL

Sc4120/

100A 48V ≤100A

50mA 54.8V 43.2V

-25℃

~+45℃ 54.8V

-3mv/℃

/cell

pulse width modulated controller [66] [67] [68] [69]

WS-

C2460(5

0A)

$28.

00

12V/24

Vauto

work

50A <=30m

A

13.7V /

27.4V

10.5~11V /

21V~22V

-25℃

~+55℃

17V /

34V

-3mv/℃

/cell

KT1215 $60.

00

12V/24

Vauto

work

15A <5mA 13.2V 12.6V -35℃

~+55℃ 13.8V NO

SR-50 $26.

00

12/24V

auto

matic

volt

age

50A ≤

45mA

13.7/27.

4V

recogniz

e tacit

ly

12.6/25.2V

recognize

tacitly

-40℃

~+60℃

13.8V/

27.4V

-3mv/°

C/cell

Page 48: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

48

SDC240V

-100A

$2,5

00.0

0

240v 100A ≤10

mA

>285V±

2 210V

-

25℃ ~

+60℃

405.0V -3mv/°

C/cell

maximum power point tracking controller[70] [71] [72]

Tracer4

210A

$169

.00

12V/24

Vauto

work

40A

20mA(

12V)

16mA(

24V)

14.6V 11.1V -25℃

~+45℃ 13.8V -3mV/℃/2V

IT4415N

D

$422

.60

12V/24

V

/36V/4

8V

auto

work

45A

1.4

2.2W

11.1V -25℃

~+55℃ 13.8V -3mV/℃/2V

I-P-

eSMART-

12V/24V

/48V(40

A)

$150

.00

DC14V~

DC100V

/DC30~

DC100V

/DC60~

DC100V

40A ≤

40mA 110V 10.5V

-25℃

~+55℃

refer

the

charge

voltag

e of

the

batter

y

14.2V-

(the top

temperatur

e-25℃)

*0.3

Page 49: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

49

Page 50: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

Following the Table 4-8 controller parameter, we choose the PWM

controller SDC240V-100A, because the output voltage is higher than other

controller, it is suitable for our batteries. There are three stages charging

function to protect battery: constant current; constant voltage and flooded

charging.

Besides the basic function of controller, likes input short-circuit

protection; input overcurrent protection, batteries and PV array reverse

polarity protection, the controller has the function of restricting maximum

input power of the PV array, make sure the array can’t be overload under any

condition; it also can protect the batteries overcharge and over-discharge.

Figure 4-10 PWM controller SDC240V-100A,[69]

Page 51: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

51

Table 4-9 gives the detailed specification of the SDC240V-100A controller.

Page 52: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

52

Table 4-9 Detailed specification of the SDC240V-100A controller[73]

Model SDC240V-100A

Rated battery voltage 240V

Rated current of solar energy panel 100A

Rated current of each solar energy panel 25A

Maximum voltage of solar energy panel 440V

Rated Power of the Solar Panel 24KW

Number of solar energy panel array 4 circuits

Method of working Working continuously

Function Charging and control

State display LED

Protection class IP30

Operating environment Temperature:-10-40 ℃

Humidity≤80%

Stopping charging voltage of 1&2 circuits solar Panel >285V±2

Resuming charging voltage of 1&2 circuits solar Panel <270V±2

Stopping charging voltage of 3&4 circuits solar Panel >290V±2

Resuming charging voltage of 3&4 circuits solar Panel <270V±2

Connection cable of provided battery(㎡) >20mm²

Maximum no-load self-consume (MA) 300mA

Voltage drop between solar energy panel and accumulator 2V

Applicable altitude ﹤1000 m

Product size 585*585*980mm

Page 53: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

53

4.4 Description of storage battery

4.4.1 Storage batteries

For the impact of the solar energy to be felt, the storage batteries used in

the respective solar applications and systems need to meet the demands of

unstable grid energy. Thus, solar storage batteries are considered to be key

components in stand-alone renewable energy systems so as to continuously

store the supply energy harnessed during peak and low periods respectively.

There’s a variety of battery types fitted for these unique requirements. Main

subgroups of storage batteries for solar energies earlier reviewed included

flow batteries[74], lithium ion batteries [75] and lead acid batteries[76].

Also, choice for the battery comprised of parameters such as; the storage

capacity which total energy actually stored with respect to that retrieved [32],

power transmission rate [33], discharge time [34], battery efficiency [35],

cycling capacity [36], cost of the storage battery [36],disposal/environmental

effects[37], and finally the self-discharge rate of the storage battery[38] . A

brief presentation of each of these subgroups is presented below.

4.4.2 Lead acid storage battery

Also known as valve regulated (VRLA) battery, it comprises of; Gel,

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) and flooded lead acid models.

Flooded lead acid has a higher replacement/maintenance and disposal risk

factor because of constant refilling of the evaporated electrolytes. But AGM

and gel are recombinant in that they require little or no maintenance and

filling since there is minimal evaporation of the electrolytes making them

environmentally safer. Being cheaper than lithium Ion batteries, and also

high capacity, higher efficiency and cycle life, lead acid storage battery

performance makes them a better choice for solar energy standby.

Page 54: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

54

Figure 4-11 AGM storage battery[77]

4.4.3 Lithium Ion storage battery

Presently the most common storage battery used in modern technology

especially in smartphones. Its various forms consist of Iron phosphate,

Nickel, Cobalt, Manganese storage models. Unlike lead acid storage battery

types, they basically require low maintenance, low self-discharging, higher

energy and capacity densities, and thus they can provide higher current

outputs.

Despite the above benefits, they are more expensive, higher aging rates, and

they require a lot of protection in terms of voltage/ current balances [78].

4.4.4 Flow battery

Flow battery for solar energy storage is consisted of basically redox

vanadium and hybrid models. Still considered as an emerging form for solar

energy storage and cost assumed to be cheaper than lithium acid in near

future[79].

Flow batteries are considered to deliver optimal power supply since its

electrolytes and electro- active materials are stored externally and separately.

Though there is separation of reactive components, externally there is high

cost of construction and environmental risk of spillage.

Page 55: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

55

So from the tabular analysis as seen on Table 4-10 below and our

investigations, AGM(BAT412201080) lead acid storage battery was selected

for our research work

Page 56: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

Table 4-10 Compare of the Different Battery Types for Solar Energy Storage [80] [56]

Parameters/

Model

Ene

rgy

eff

(%)

Price

($/kwh

)

Capacit

y

(A

/20h)

Volta

ge

(V)

Depth

of

dischar

ge

(%)

Design

life

(years

)

Cyc

le

lif

e

Temp

sensi

tivit

y

(best

degre

e )

Energ

y/

weigh

t

ratio

(wh/k

g)

Pow

er/

wei

ght

rat

io

(w/

kg)

Energy/v

ol ratio

(wh/l)

Self-

discharge

(%)

Dispo

sal

Lead acid batteries

T105-RE

Flooded

70.0-

92.0

152 225 12 30-50 12 800

.0-

100

0.0

1

-

20 ℃

-

+70

35.0-

40.0

180 70.0

-

80.0

3.0-

4.0

High

safety

measures

AGM(BAT41220

1080)

92 387 220 1

2

30-80 7.0 -

10.0

200

Cyc

les

@

100

%

-

25 ℃

-

+60

4- 42 - <

2

ISO

9001 quality

standard

4 Can’t find the data for boxes with -. This is because the data available was not in line with our research work

Page 57: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

57

Parameters/

Model

Ene

rgy

eff

(%)

Price

($/kwh

)

Capacit

y

(A

/20h)

Volta

ge

(V)

Depth

of

dischar

ge

(%)

Design

life

(years

)

Cyc

le

lif

e

Temp

sensi

tivit

y

(best

degre

e )

Energ

y/

weigh

t

ratio

(wh/k

g)

Pow

er/

wei

ght

rat

io

(w/

kg)

Energy/v

ol ratio

(wh/l)

Self-

discharge

(%)

Dispo

sal

GEL(BPG12-

24T)

90 150-

180

150

(20

hours

rate

(7.5A

10.8V))

1

2

30-80 10.0 -

15.0

4-

5.6

- - - <2 Moderat

e safety

measure

lithium ion batteries [81] [82] [76]

Iron

phospate(BAT

512600500)

92 7

9

7

60 3.2-3.3 12

.8

6 200

0Cycles

@ 80%

-

45 ℃

-

+70

80.0-

120.0

1400 >300 180A

(LFP

-CB

12,8

/60)

High

safety

measures

Page 58: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

58

Parameters/

Model

Ene

rgy

eff

(%)

Price

($/kwh

)

Capacit

y

(A

/20h)

Volta

ge

(V)

Depth

of

dischar

ge

(%)

Design

life

(years

)

Cyc

le

lif

e

Temp

sensi

tivit

y

(best

degre

e )

Energ

y/

weigh

t

ratio

(wh/k

g)

Pow

er/

wei

ght

rat

io

(w/

kg)

Energy/v

ol ratio

(wh/l)

Self-

discharge

(%)

Dispo

sal

Nickel,Cobal

t,Manganese

>91 9

7

0

20 2.7-4.2 4 8 0.75-

1.9

55 140.0

-

150.0

260-

450

5

- 80% Moderate

safety

measure

Flow batteries[83] [84]

Redox(vanedi

um cellcube

FB 10-100)

80 no

price

assume

rental

100kw

h

48V DC 10

0

20-

30

unlimit

ed

-40℃

~+50

10.0

-20.0

10 15-

25

<150

W

environmen

tally

friendly &

recyclable

Hybrid(UPS

Premium

DSP0.9

Hybrid 10-

500kVA)

>94 no

price

assume

rental

6.0

to

300

12 5

0

3-

20.

0

2500 0℃ ~

+40℃

- 18

(0.9

power

factor

)

- (+/-

)

405V

DC

&(+/

>97%

recycle

rate, Li-

ion low

5 Can’t find the data for boxes with -. This is because the data available was not in line with our research work

Page 59: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

59

Parameters/

Model

Ene

rgy

eff

(%)

Price

($/kwh

)

Capacit

y

(A

/20h)

Volta

ge

(V)

Depth

of

dischar

ge

(%)

Design

life

(years

)

Cyc

le

lif

e

Temp

sensi

tivit

y

(best

degre

e )

Energ

y/

weigh

t

ratio

(wh/k

g)

Pow

er/

wei

ght

rat

io

(w/

kg)

Energy/v

ol ratio

(wh/l)

Self-

discharge

(%)

Dispo

sal

-)

300V

DC

safety

level

Page 60: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

4.4.5 Connection of battery packs

In order to figure out the connection pattern of batteries, we have to refer

the specification of the controller, the PV modules, how they connect

together and produce how much power.

There are formulas describes the relationship between the solar panels

phalanx and the storage battery pack. We will figure out the connection

pattern base the formulas below.

𝐶𝑤 =𝑄𝐿𝑑𝐹

𝐾𝐷

𝑃𝑚 =𝑄𝐿𝐹

𝐾𝑇𝑚

Cw is the battery pack capacity with the unit Wh; QL is the energy quantity

which can be deliver to the electrical appliance; d is the number of continuous

days without sunlight and we assume d=2 here; F is the amending coefficient

of discharge (𝐹 =𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦); K is the loss between the battery and

the electrical appliance; D is the depth of the storage batteries discharge level,

we suppose D=80% in our utilization of batteries; Pm is the peak power of

each PV phalanx, a PV phalanx consists of 3×7=21 PV modules with 350W

maximum power, thus

𝑃𝑚 = 350 × (3 × 7) = 7350𝑊;

Tm is the Peak sun hours, Tm=2.8 hours in average throughout a year

according Table 4-7.

According the two formulas above, we obtain that:

𝐶𝑤 =𝑃𝑚𝑇𝑚𝑑

𝐷

The storage battery pack should have the capacity for a PV phalanx bigger

than:

𝐶𝑤 =𝑃𝑚𝑇𝑚𝑑

𝐷=

7350 × 2.8 × 2

80%= 51450 𝑊ℎ

Page 61: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

61

The voltage of each battery pack is same with the system voltage, 240V.

Therefore we need

240 ÷ 12 = 20

Batteries connected in series to raise the voltage in the battery pack. 12V is

the voltage of each battery.

In the meanwhile, the capacity of each battery pack should be bigger than

C =𝐶𝑤

𝑈=

51450𝑊ℎ

240≈ 214.38 𝐴ℎ

Table 4-11 describes the specification of different types of AGM batteries.

And the capacity of the BAT412201080 is 220Ah, which is bigger than

214.38Ah, conforming our requirement of conserving the daily energy output

of a PV phalanx. Therefore we do not need to connect the batteries in parallel

in each battery pack to raise the capacity of each battery pack.

Table 4-11 AGM batteries specification

12 Volt Deep Cycle AGM General Specification

Article number

Ah V l x w x h

mm Weight

kg CCA @0°F

RES CAP

@80°F

Technology: flat plate AGM Terminals: copper

BAT406225080 240 6 320x176x247 31 1500 480 Rated capacity: 20 hr discharge at 25°C Float design life: 7-10 years at 20 °C Cycle design life: 400 cycles at 80% discharge 600 cycles at 50% discharge 1500 cycles at 30% discharge

BAT212070080 8 12 151x65x101 2,5 BAT212120080 14 12 151x98x101 4,1 BAT212200080 22 12 181x77x167 5,8 BAT412350080 38 12 197x165x170 12,5 BAT412550080 60 12 229x138x227 20 450 90

BAT412600080 66 12 258x166x235 24 520 100

BAT412800080 90 12 350x167x183 27 600 145

BAT412101080 110 12 330x171x220 32 800 190

BAT412121080 130 12 410x176x227 38 1000 230

BAT412151080 165 12 485x172x240 47 1200 320

BAT412201080 220 12 522x238x240 65 1400 440

According the features that each controller has 4 circuits connecting with

the battery packs, the rate current and rated voltage is 25A and 240V of each

circuit, the input current and the input voltage for each battery is also 25A

and 240V.

Page 62: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

62

Table 4-19 present the connection of the batteries and the connection

between the battery packs and the controller.

Figure 4-12 Connection pattern of battery with the controller

Since there are ten controllers handling all the electric energy output from

the PV phalanxes, and each controller controls four battery packs charging

and discharging. We need 10×4 = 40 battery packs to conserve the energy

generated by the PV phalanxes. In other word, There are 40×20 =800

batteries in our system to conserve the energy.

battery

220Ah, 12V

Controller

Battery pack

240V, 220Ah

......

.

20

......

.

......

.

......

.

Page 63: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

4.5 Inverter

4.5.1 Description of inverter

Based on electricity generated by solar cells, there are three basic inverters

or converters which convert the DC electricity from the solar panel to AC

electricity that can be used to charge the cars both at home sockets or

charging stations these converters includes, the string inverters or centralised

inverters, micro inverters and power optimizers.

4.5.1.1 String inverters

Involves arranging the solar panels parallel into sets of strings that relay

the power they harnessed into a single inverter. Here the panels produce

equal total power at higher voltages. This reduces cost of wiring and lesser

internal losses of the harnessed energy leading to improved efficiency [39].

Figure 4-13 string inverter[85]

4.5.1.2 Micro Inverters

Unlike string inverters, micro converters the DC electricity of each solar

panel to the AC per panel- that is each panel is attached to a micro inverters

and output of the several micro inverters are combined and fed into the

electric grid of the home or load. Here any failure of one of the panels as a

result of shadings, debris or snow lines does not affect the functionality of

the other panels because each micro inverter harnesses maximum power [39].

Page 64: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

64

Though individual micro inverters generally have lower efficiency

values as compared to string inverters, their combined efficiency is

increased due to the fact that every inverter / panel unit acts independently.

Figure 4-14 Micro inverter[85]

4.5.1.3 Power Optimisers

Similar to micro inverters in that both systems attempt to isolate individual

panels in order to improve the performance of the entire system. Power

optimizers are used to monitor the total output of the pane arrays so as to

continually adjust and modify the load attached in order the keep the system

operational at its peak. This process is known as maximum power point

tracking (MPPT) by use of a Smart Module [40].

Figure 4-15 power optimizer[85]

Page 65: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

65

Table 4-12 Wikipedia-by Fraunhofer ISE 2014, from: Photovoltaic

Report[86] [87] [88] [89]

Title Comparison of inverter

Type Power

(W)

Efficiency (%)

Module Voc

Module Ioc

Cell modules

Fronius Primo 8.2 inverter

6.6- 12.7K

97 650 38 4 strings

SDP 30KW inverter

1-200K 94 240 136 4

P350 Power optimizer

350 99.5 1000 15 Up to

25 strings

To conclude based on our analysis on Table 4-12 above, we will adopt the

SDP 30KW inverter due to its rated output power compatible to the energy

produced by our solar panels and also output frequency range in line with

that specified with the vehicle charger selected.

We determine to use micro inverter in our research work because of its

higher power output rate and also more flexible in that additional solar panels

can be added, and monitoring done to access our power harnessing and

consumption rates.

Page 66: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

66

4.6 Utilization of electricity from general AC netwok

Figure 4-16 Utilization of electricity from general AC network

Since the high latitude at Karlskrona, the solar radiation in the Karlskrona

is much less than the districts at low latitude. Moreover, the illumination time

is very short in the winter, PV module acquire little irradiation at these time.

It cannot afford the daily requirement of the charging. We adopt the use of

electricity from general AC power grid, in case the PV modules cannot

provide enough electricity for daily charge by user.

jointed straightway to the AC network and separate the general power

circuit with the photovoltaic energy generation circuit. That is to say only

SAE J1772 chargers in our system will use the energy generated by the PV

modules; the energy the general sockets use is from the general AC network.

Figure 4-16 presents a rough and simple structure of the use of the energy

from AC network. At this case, when the storage batteries are detected in low

level by controller and are about to run out of their energy, the system will

turn off some unused SAE J1772 chargers to prevent either battery charge

breaking off or batteries over discharging. Meanwhile, the system will notice

the user to use the general socket to charge their vehicles.

AC Network

General socket

kwh

Vehicle Charger

SAE J1772 charge

......

Page 67: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

67

4.7 Description of vehical charger

4.7.1 Specification of the popular electrical vehicle

battery

In order to implement our charging system, we study several electrical

vehicles, their batteries and how they are charged. Table 4-13 below gives

the basic information about these.

Table 4-13 Electrical Vehicle battery specification[90]–[116].

Model Battery

type Charger Adapter

Capacity(

kW h)

Renault Fluence

Z.E. lithium-ion

3.5kW AC

onboard charger

Optional Zoe's

Chameleon

charger (43 kW)

10A 220V-

240V

household

charger;

SAE J1772

22

Tesla Model S

P90D lithium-ion

11 kW AC

onboard charger

120 kW DC fast

charger

SAE J1772

public

chargers.

Adapters to

IEC 60309

5 PIN Red

16A/3-

phase (400

V) or IEC

60309 3

PIN Blue

32A/single-

phase (240

V) or some

other kinds

of domestic

adapter or

general

adapters

90

Page 68: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

68

based on

regions.

Optional

CHAdeMO

charger.

Super

charger.

Toyota Prius

Plug-in Hybrid lithium-ion

3.3kW AC

onboard charger

120v

household

outlet;

SAE J1772

8.8

BMW i3 lithium-ion

7.4kW AC

onboard charger

DC fast charger

SAE J1772

Optional

Combo DC.

22

Chevrolet Spark

EV lithium-ion

3.3kW AC

onboard charger

DC fast charger

120V cord

plugs into

any

household

outlet;

240V

chargers;

DC Fast

Charge-

capable

(SAE

Combo)

21.3

Mitsubishi i-

MiEV lithium-ion

3.3kW AC

onboard charger

44kW DC fast

charger

adapters for

domestic

AC sockets

(110-240

V);

15 A 240 V

AC (3.6

16

Page 69: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

69

kW)[2] on

the SAE

J1772-2009

inlet,

optional

Chademo

(max 44

kW 480 V

DC[3]);

Nissan Leaf lithium-ion

3.6 kW AC

onboard charger

DC fast charger

Standard

SAE J1772-

2009

connector

120/240

volts AC

JARI high-

voltage DC

connector(5

00 volts DC

125A,

CHAdeMO

)

24

Kia Soul EV lithium-ion

6.6kW AC on

board charger

DC fast charger

SAE J1772

CHAdeMO

27

Fiat 500e lithium-ion 6.6kW AC

onboard charger SAE J1772 24

Mercedes B-

Class Electric lithium-ion

10kW AC onboard

charger

120-volt

charging

cable;

SAE J1772

28

Ford Focus

Electric lithium-ion

6.6kW AC

onboard charger

120V

convenienc

e charge

cord

240V Home

Charging

Station

23

Page 70: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

70

SAE-J1772

Volkswagen E-

Golf lithium-ion

3.6kW AC

onboard charger

DC fast Charger

charging

cable in

conjunction

with a

standard

domestic

mains

socket;

Combined

Charging

System;

24.2

The table above lists the present popular electrical vehicles battery data.

The capacity of these vehicle batteries is approximately 43kWh.

4.7.2 Selection of charging mode

According to Table 4-13, most electrical vehicle provides several kinds of

charging mode. All these electrical vehicles generally support connecting

household electric socket charging and SAE J1772 standard charging or DC

fast charging. Among these charging modes, the DC fast charging is latest.

It is supported by several vehicles, mode. In this mode, the charging rate has

been raised to two to three times than AC charging. It realized that charging

battery up to 80% in an hour. There are three main types of DC fast charging

standard: CHAdeMO, Combined Charging Standard and Tesla’

Supercharger. However, although this DC charging technology has high

efficiency, its consuming power rate is too high. If we implement the fast DC

charging in our system, according the present CHAdeMO standard charger

at least providing 40 kW power[117], we need to place more than 114 PV

modules with 350w maximum power output to provide 40 kW power for one

DC charger. And the total number of our PV modules in our system is 840.

With the 350×840×2.8

1000= 823.2kWh theoretical daily energy output, it can

only support a DC charger work for about 823.2

40= 20.58 hours each day. In

other way, we can only deploy 350×840

1000÷ 40 ≈ 7 DC fast chargers and

Page 71: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

71

provide enough power only if the PV modules work at the STC6. Obviously,

it is not realistic to equip the DC charging in our system. Our system cannot

handle so much power to the DC fast charger. In the table, it indicates all the

vehicles support the SAE J1772 standard charging and general household

socket charging. Therefore this two charging mode will be employed in our

system. Regarding the general power socket in Sweden, we have to have one

kind of power output conformed the Swedish standard and another kind

conformed the SAE J1772 standard. Order to simplify the structure of our

system, the energy the general socket use comes from the general AC power

grid instead of coming from the PV modules. And using the general socket

to charge vehicle is an alternative charging option in our system, it make the

charge tasks still available when the system run out all of the energy in the

storage batteries and there is no output from the PV modules in the same time.

4.7.3 SAE J1772 standard charger

“SAE J1772 (IEC Type 1) is a North American standard for electrical

connectors for electric vehicles maintained by the SAE7 International and has

the formal title "SAE Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice J1772, SAE

Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler". It specifies the requirements

of the charging system in many aspects, such as physic, electric,

communication protocol, and performance[119]. Since this standard

charging had been developed since early and has advantages such as price

comparing to other standards, it has been used widely, most electrical vehicle

in the market.

In order to integrate this charging pattern in our solar charging system, we

have studied the electricity parameter of SAE J1772 standard and create the

required condition to install this charger. There are two level of charging of

SAE J1772 standard.

6 “Standard Test Conditions (STC) are specified in standards such as IEC 61215, IEC 61646 and

UL 1703; specifically the light intensity is 1000 W/m2, with a spectrum similar to sunlight hitting the earth's surface at latitude 35°N in the summer (airmass 1.5), the temperature of the cells being 25 °C”[118].

7 Society of Automotive Engineers

Page 72: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

72

Table 4-14 below gives descriptions of these two levels of charging.

Page 73: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

73

Table 4-14 Specification of SAE J1772 Standard Charging[119].

Voltage Phase Peak current Power

AC Level 1 120 V Single phase 16 A 1.92 kW

AC Level 2 240 V Split phase 32 A (2001)

80 A (2009)

7.68 kW

19.20 kW

Nowadays, almost all the electrical vehicle supports the SAE J1772 level

2 charging mode, and level 2 charging rate is much higher than level 1

charging. Therefore we will integrate this charging mode in our system based

on the specification indicated in

Page 74: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

74

Table 4-14.

In order to implement our charging electrical network, we have chosen a

certain type of charger, Clipper Creek HSC-40 as our option of charger.

Table 4-15 below gives specification of this type of charger.

Table 4-15 HCS-40 electrical specification[120]

According this specification, we can build up an eligible electrical circuit

to service the HSC-40 charger.

General

Charging Power 32 Amp (7.7kW max)

Product Dimensions 19.7"L x 8.9"W x 5.3"D

Product Weight

Installation Hardwired (3 foot service whip provided)

Supply Circuit 208/240V, 40A

Frequency: 60 Hz

Warranty 3 years

Charge Cable Length 25 feet

Vehicle Connector Type Lockable SAE J1772

Accessories Included SAE J1772 Connector Holster, Wall Mount

Enclosure Fully Sealed NEMA 4

Environment Rating Indoor/Outdoor rated

Operating Temperature -22°F to 122°F (-30°C to +50°C)

Certifications ETL, cETL

Page 75: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

75

4.7.4 General Swedish power output analyzes.

In Sweden, the general power socket conforms CEE 7/3 standard8, the

general plug conforms CEE 7/49 standard. They together have been called

"Schuko" and Type F. This Schuko connection system is symmetrical and

unpolarised which means that it does not matter whether you put the plug

into the socket reversely. The CEE 7/3 standard socket is also compatible

with the CEE 7/16 standard plug and CEE 7/17 plug which are belong to type

C. Table 4-16 and Table 4-17 below present the standard power output and

plug specification in Sweden.

Table 4-18 Standard power output in Sweden[121].

Voltage Frequency Accepting Plug Type

230V 50Hz C,F

8 CEE 7/3 standard was released by The International Commission on the Rules for the

Approval of Electrical Equipment (IECEE). 9 CEE 7/4 standard was released by The International Commission on the Rules for the

Approval of Electrical Equipment (IECEE).

Page 76: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

76

Table 4-19 Swedish General Plug Type Specification[122].

IEC

Wor

ld

Plug

s

Typ

e

Standar

d

Rating Earth

ed

Polaris

ed

Fuse

d

Insulat

ed

pins

Socket

accepts

Europl

ug

C

CEE

7/16

(Europl

ug)

2.5

A

250

V

NO NO NO YES N/A

-

CEE

7/17

plug

16

A

250

V

NO NO NO NO N/A

F

CEE 7/3

Socket 16

A

250

V YES NO NO NO YES

CEE 7/4

Socket

Base on the specification in the tables above, we will use Type F (CEE

7/4) socket as one of our charging socket. And it will provides 230V power

output, maximally allows 16A current flow.

4.7.5 Charging time and consuming power

4.7.5.1 Charging time and consuming power using

SAE J1772 level 2 charging

Regarding the SAE J1772 charging, we also study the charging time of

the electrical vehicle listed in Fel! Hittar inte referenskälla.,

Page 77: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

77

Table 4-20 below gives data of these.

Page 78: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

78

Table10 4-20 Charging time and consuming power using SAE J1772

level 2 charging[90]–[116]

Model Capacity(

kW h)

Power

(kW)

Curren

t(A)

Charging time

(hour)

Renault Fluence

Z.E. 22 3.5 14.6 7.5

Tesla Model S

P90D 90 6.6 27.5 14

Toyota Prius

Plug-in Hybrid 8.8 3.3 13.8 2.25

BMW i3 22 7.4 30.8 3.5

Chevrolet Spark

EV 21.3 3.3 13.8 7

Mitsubishi i-MiEV 16 3.3 13.8 6

Nissan Leaf 24 3.6 15.0 8

Kia Soul EV 27 6.6 27.5 4

Fiat 500e 24 6.6 27.5 4

Mercedes B-Class

Electric 28 10 41.7 3.5

Ford Focus Electric 23 6.6 27.5 4

Volkswagen E-Golf 24.2 3.6 15.0 8

5.4 6.0

According this table, we can obtain the average charging power with using

SAE J1772 charging is 5.4kW; the consuming power is 6.5 hours in average.

However, as our option of charger maximum power is 7.7kW, the Mercedes

B-Class Electric cannot charge at its maximum charge rate 10kW. Instead its

maximum charge power becomes 7.7kW. Since of these and it is hard to

measure the increasing time when Mercedes B-Class charge at this power

10 The data in this table is not accurate. The practical data varies caused by many factors such

as the condition of the battery. All this data is gathered from the internet.

Page 79: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

79

rate, we recalculate the average consuming power and average charging time

by removing the data about this vehicle.

We obtain the results that the consuming power of charging is about 4.9

kW and the average fully charging time for each vehicle is about 6.2 hours.

4.7.5.2 Charging time and consuming power using

general socket

Regarding using the general power socket to charge the electrical vehicle,

we have studied the charging time in several types of vehicle listed in Table

4-13. Table 4-21 below gives the data of these.

Table11 4-21 Electrical vehicle charging time and consuming power

using general power socket[90]–[116]

Model Capacity(

kW h)

Power

(kW)

Curren

t(A)

Charging time

(hour)

Renault Fluence

Z.E. 22 2.3 10 11

Tesla Model S

P90D 90 2.9 13 30

Toyota Prius

Plug-in Hybrid 8.8

BMW i3 22 2.7 12 9.5

Chevrolet Spark

EV 21.3

Mitsubishi i-MiEV 16

Nissan Leaf 24 2.3 10 12

Kia Soul EV 27

Fiat 500e 24

11 The blank cell means the data is missing. The data in this table is not accurate. The practical

data varies caused by many factors such as the condition of the battery. All this data is gathered from the internet.

Page 80: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

80

Mercedes B-Class

Electric 28

Ford Focus Electric 23

Volkswagen E-Golf 24.2 2.3 10 13

According this table, we can obtain the average charging time with

general socket is 15.1 hours; the consuming power is 2.5kW in average.

4.7.5.3 Chargers arrangement

According the result of daily electric output quantity Pm•Tm=350×840×2.8 = 823.2kWh and the 4.9kW average consuming power of charging, we

can acquire that 823.2kWh/4.9kW=168 hours total charging time. In order to

approach the maximum quantity requirement of users, we suppose that each

charger can work at least 6.2 hours. In this case we can deploy 168/6.2≈27

chargers at our system. In other word, if 27 vehicles need to be charged in

the same time, our system still assures that the 27 vehicle can be acquired

fully charging service. Otherwise if there are less than 27 hour vehicle

charging at the same time, each charger service hours will relatively increase.

And this reckon is theoretical, it neglects the loss between the PV modules

and the charger and other influencing factor.823.2𝑘𝑊

4.9𝑘𝑊×6.2ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠≈ 27

Page 81: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

81

4.8 Installation cost

4.8.1 Installation cost of our system

Base on the number and the price of each component we use, we can

approximately estimate the total cost of our system. Table 4-22 Lists most of

the components we use at our system and the cost of them.

Page 82: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

Table 4-23 Cost of system

Capacity 135KW

Daily Power

Consumption Solar radiation 2.8hours 823.2KWH

System Voltage 240V

Solar panel

Type 1STH-350-WH $1.05/panel $882.00

Pmax 350W 840 panels

Vmp 42.98V

Imp 8.13A

Inverter

SPEC 350w $6,000.00 $12,000.00

Wave form Sinc wave 2 inverters

Output voltage 60v

Output frequency 50Hz~60Hz

Inverter efficiency 98.80%

Controller

Rated voltage 240V $2,500.00 $25,000.00

Rated current 100A 10 controllers

Page 83: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

83

Control mode PWM

Protection

Smart charging and

discharging;

three stages charging function

to protect battery.

Storage battery

Battery Type AGM(BAT412350080) $118/battery $94,400.00

Voltage 12v 800 batteries

Capacity 38(A/20h)

Vehicle charger

Type SAE J1772 $565.00 $15,255.00

Supply Circuit 240V, 40A 27 chargers

Charging power 32 Amp (7.7kW max)

General socket Type F CEE 7/4 socket $3.00 $81.00

Distribution Box Specification 2 inputs; 2 outputs 20

Cable Specification 1.0mm2

Solar Mounting

System Inclined Roof Mounting Type

Page 84: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

84

Total $147,618.00

Page 85: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

5 Chapter: Conclusion and future work

Striving for a greener and eco-friendly future depends on how much

actions we put in so as to reduce and while not stop those humane behaviours

based on car usage that increases the level on environmental pollution.

Efficient harnessing of solar energy involved choosing efficient

components that provide the required energy capacity to charge the electric

cars. With a surface area of 2900m2, 840 1STH-350-WH PV modules at 71

degrees inclination, it generated approximately at least 136kwh daily energy

output in winter, average 823.2kwh daily energy output throughout a year in

theory.

Combining 10 SDC240-100A micro controllers, 2 SDP30Kw inverters,

800 AGM (BAT412350080) storage batteries from our system model, we

can charge up to 27 electrical vehicles at once with an average full charging

time of up to 6.2 hours. All these are achieved due to the fact that we use the

SAE J1772 standard charging. Additionally general power sockets provide

230V power output in case more energy is needed. This energy is obtained

from the general AC power grid and the average charging time 15.1 hours

with this alternative charging method. Also, this method of charging

consumes 2.5kW power in average.

Since the solar energy generation and charging occurs during the day, thus

using photovoltaic to charge electric cars means most of the electric vehicle

charging will have to take place during working hours, which will have

significant impact on reducing carbon emissions during the day which is the

main humane concern. With this piece of work we do hope it serves as a

starting point for other research work in this area.

Page 86: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

Reference

[1] “Solar energy,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 03-May-2016.

[2] “Summary of Population Statistics 1960-2015,” Statistiska

Centralbyrån. [Online]. Available: http://www.scb.se/en_/Finding-

statistics/Statistics-by-subject-area/Population/Population-

composition/Population-statistics/Aktuell-Pong/25795/Yearly-

statistics--The-whole-country/26040/. [Accessed: 14-May-2016].

[3] “Vehicle statistics.” [Online]. Available: http://www.trafa.se/en/road-

traffic/vehicle-statistics/. [Accessed: 14-May-2016].

[4] “Climate: Karlskrona - Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate

table - Climate-Data.org.” [Online]. Available: http://en.climate-

data.org/location/6274/. [Accessed: 14-May-2016].

[5] V. Masson, M. Bonhomme, J.-L. Salagnac, X. Briottet, and A.

Lemonsu, “Solar panels reduce both global warming and urban heat

island,” Atmospheric Sci., vol. 2, p. 14, 2014.

[6] “A Vision for a Climate-Friendly Future | Center for Climate and

Energy Solutions.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.c2es.org/newsroom/speeches/vision-climate-friendly-

future. [Accessed: 14-May-2016].

[7] “IEA - Key World Energy Statistics 2013,” Statista. [Online].

Available: http://www.statista.com/study/17714/global-energy-

statistics/. [Accessed: 16-May-2016].

[8] V. Masson, M. Bonhomme, J.-L. Salagnac, X. Briottet, and A.

Lemonsu, “Solar panels reduce both global warming and urban heat

island,” Atmospheric Sci., vol. 2, p. 14, 2014.

[9] “Solar Energy Creates Green Jobs Nationwide for a Strong

Economy.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.brightsourceenergy.com/jobs-creation-

economy#.VzbHt_l97IV. [Accessed: 14-May-2016].

[10] Q. Liu, “Electric car with solar and wind energy may change the

environment and economy: A tool for utilizing the renewable energy

resource,” Earths Future, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 7–13, Jan. 2014.

[11] M. Z. Jacobson and M. A. Delucchi, “Providing all global energy with

wind, water, and solar power, Part I: Technologies, energy resources,

quantities and areas of infrastructure, and materials,” Energy Policy,

vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 1154–1169, Mar. 2011.

Page 87: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

87

[12] P. Kelly-Detwiler, “Electric Cars and the Power Grid: How Are They

Coming Together?,” Forbes. [Online]. Available:

http://www.forbes.com/sites/peterdetwiler/2013/01/28/electric-cars-

and-the-power-grid-how-are-they-coming-together/. [Accessed: 14-

May-2016].

[13] P. S. G. A. Putrus, “Impact of electric vehicles on power distribution

networks,” 5th IEEE Veh. Power Propuls. Conf. VPPC 3909, pp. 827–

831, 2009.

[14] “Design of Microcontroller Based Static VAR Compensator.”

[Online]. Available: http://www.ijser.org/paper/Design-of-

Microcontroller-Based-Static-VAR-Compensator.html. [Accessed:

14-May-2016].

[15] W. Zhang, W. Ge, M. Huang, J. Jiang, W. Zhang, W. Ge, M. Huang,

and J. Jiang, “Optimal Day-Time Charging Strategies for Electric

Vehicles considering Photovoltaic Power System and Distribution

Grid Constraints, Optimal Day-Time Charging Strategies for Electric

Vehicles considering Photovoltaic Power System and Distribution

Grid Constraints,” Math. Probl. Eng. Math. Probl. Eng., vol. 2015,

2015, p. e765362, Mar. 2015.

[16] Z. Salam, M. J. B. A. Aziz, and K. P. Yee, “A critical review of

electric vehicle charging using solar photovoltaic,” Int. J. Energy Res.,

vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 439–461, Mar. 2016.

[17] S. C. B. Kramer, “A Review of Plug-in Vehicles and Vehicle-to-Grid

Capability,” Proc. - 34th Annu. Conf. IEEE Ind. Electron. Soc. IECON

2008, pp. 2278–2283, 2008.

[18] “An Overview of the SWEBOK Guide - SEBoK.” [Online].

Available:

http://sebokwiki.org/wiki/An_Overview_of_the_SWEBOK_Guide#So

ftware_Design. [Accessed: 14-May-2016].

[19] “Part 2: Solar Energy Reaching The Earth’s Surface | ITACA.” .

[20] “7(f) Atmospheric Effects on Incoming Solar Radiation.” [Online].

Available: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7f.html.

[Accessed: 14-May-2016].

[21] “Solar energy,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 03-May-2016.

[22] Smil, Vaclav and V. Smil, Energy at the Crossroads: Global

Perspectives and Uncertainties. [[MIT Press]], 2003.

[23] Smil, Vaclav and V. Smil, Energy at the Crossroads. Organisation for

Economic Co-operation and Development, 2006.

Page 88: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

88

[24] “Solar Basics | Intro to Solar Panels and Solar Energy | Yingli Solar.”

[Online]. Available: http://www.yinglisolar.com/en/solar-basics/.

[Accessed: 16-May-2016].

[25] “Power Characteristics of a Solar Panel.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.wholesalesolar.com/solar-information/solar-panel-

efficiency. [Accessed: 14-May-2016].

[26] “The Effect of Temperature on Photovoltaic Cell Efficiency.”

[Online]. Available: http://www.civilica.com/EnPaper--

ETEC01_021.html. [Accessed: 14-May-2016].

[27] M. A. Green, K. Emery, Y. Hishikawa, W. Warta, and E. D. Dunlop,

“Solar cell efficiency tables (version 43),” Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl.,

vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 1–9, Jan. 2014.

[28] N. I. Mrs Jaya, “PIC BASED SOLAR CHARGING CONTROLLER

FOR BATTERY.”

[29] M. D. Hussein Ibrahim, “Wind-Diesel hybrid system: energy storage

system selection method,” 2012.

[30] N. M. L. Tan, T. Abe, and H. Akagi, “Design and Performance of a

Bidirectional Isolated DC #x2013;DC Converter for a Battery Energy

Storage System,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27, no. 3, pp.

1237–1248, Mar. 2012.

[31] C. B. Manufacturing, “GHS Safety Data Sheets | Crown Battery.”

[Online]. Available: http://www.crownbattery.com/material-safety-

data-sheets. [Accessed: 16-May-2016].

[32] “Batteries in a Portable World | A Handbook on Rechargeable

Batteries for Non-engineers.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.buchmann.ca/buchmann/. [Accessed: 16-May-2016].

[33] “INVESTIGATION DES DIVERSES OPTIONS DE STOCKAGE D

ÉNERGIE FACE À L INTÉGRATION DES PARCS ÉOLIENS

DANS LES RÉSEAUX.” [Online]. Available:

http://docplayer.fr/5129219-Investigation-des-diverses-options-de-

stockage-d-energie-face-a-l-integration-des-parcs-eoliens-dans-les-

reseaux.html. [Accessed: 16-May-2016].

[34] “Stockage d’énergie et énergies renouvelables | Saft.” [Online].

Available: http://www.saftbatteries.com/fr/solutions-du-

marche/stockage-denergie-et-energies-renouvelables. [Accessed: 16-

May-2016].

[35] “Photovoltaic Systems Engineering, Third Edition,” CRC Press, 26-

Feb-2010. [Online]. Available:

Page 89: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

89

https://www.crcpress.com/Photovoltaic-Systems-Engineering-Third-

Edition/Messenger-Abtahi/p/book/9781439802922. [Accessed: 16-

May-2016].

[36] S. Kalaiselvam and R. Parameshwaran, “Chapter 2 - Energy Storage,”

in Thermal Energy Storage Technologies for Sustainability, Boston:

Academic Press, 2014, pp. 21–56.

[37] “2012_innostock-ibrahim_inno-s-14.pdf.” .

[38] “Wikipedia:Cleanup Taskforce/String inverter.,” Wikipedia, the free

encyclopedia. .

[39] “Solar micro-inverter,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 01-May-

2016.

[40] “Power optimizer,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 05-May-2016.

[41] “Car Pollution Facts.” [Online]. Available:

http://evsroll.com/Car_pollution_facts.html. [Accessed: 16-May-

2016].

[42] M. A. Lange, S. J. Cohen, and P. Kuhry, “Integrated global change

impact studies in the Arctic: the role of the stakeholders,” Polar Res.,

vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 389–396, Dec. 1999.

[43] “This Month in Physics History.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200904/physicshistory.cfm.

[Accessed: 16-May-2016].

[44] “Which Solar Panel Type is Best? Mono-, Polycrystalline or Thin

Film?,” Energy Informative. .

[45] “Monocrystalline silicon,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 25-Apr-

2016.

[46] “Which Solar Panel Type is Best? Mono-, Polycrystalline or Thin

Film?,” Energy Informative. .

[47] “Thin-film solar cell,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 14-May-

2016.

[48] mzentgraad, “Fraunhofer ISE publishes ‘Photovoltaics Report’ —

Fraunhofer ISE.” [Online]. Available:

https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/en/news/news-archive/news-

2012/fraunhofer-ise-publishes-photovoltaics-report. [Accessed: 16-

May-2016].

[49] “On the trail of toxic substances - Solar Energy - Renewables

International.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.renewablesinternational.net/on-the-trail-of-toxic-

substances/150/452/83682/. [Accessed: 16-May-2016].

Page 90: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

90

[50] “Cost Performance of Thin Film and Crystalline Photovoltaic Cells –

A Comparative Study - Inpressco.” .

[51] “Ultrathin, Dye-sensitized Solar Cells Called Most Efficient To Date,”

ScienceDaily. [Online]. Available:

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/09/060918201621.htm.

[Accessed: 16-May-2016].

[52] “Multi-junction solar cell,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 30-Apr-

2016.

[53] “Emerging Photovoltaic Technology - Energy Harvesting | DigiKey.”

[Online]. Available: http://www.digikey.com/us/en/techzone/energy-

harvesting/resources/articles/emerging-photovoltaic-technology.html.

[Accessed: 16-May-2016].

[54] M. A. Green, K. Emery, Y. Hishikawa, W. Warta, and E. D. Dunlop,

“Solar cell efficiency tables (version 44),” Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl.,

vol. 22, no. 7, pp. 701–710, Jul. 2014.

[55] “1SolTech 1STH-350-WH (350W) Solar Panel.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.solardesigntool.com/components/module-panel-

solar/1SolTech/2493/1STH-350-WH/specification-data-sheet.html.

[Accessed: 04-May-2016].

[56] “17.8% Efficiency 250w Solar Panel For Pv System - Buy 250w Solar

Panel,Panel Solar,Solar Cell Product on Alibaba.com,”

www.alibaba.com. [Online]. Available: //www.alibaba.com/product-

detail/17-8-efficiency-250w-solar-panel_60411307367.html.

[Accessed: 11-May-2016].

[57] “Evergreen ES-A-210 Black Frame Solar Panel Wholesale Discount.”

[Online]. Available: http://www.solarelectricsupply.com/evergreen-

210-watt-solar-panel-es-a-series-for-home-grid-tie-solar-systems-553.

[Accessed: 11-May-2016].

[58] “High Efficiency Amorphous Silicon Thin Film Solar Cells/solar

Panels For Sale - Buy 15kw Solar Panel (get Sun Powe Take All

Home Load),Monocrystalline Photovoltaic Cell Solar Panels 250 Watt

For Solar Lighting System,Hanergy Apartment/villas Grid-connected

Home Solar Systems 3 Kw Flagship Series Solar Panels Product on

Alibaba.com,” www.alibaba.com. [Online]. Available:

//www.alibaba.com/product-detail/high-efficiency-amorphous-silicon-

thin-film_60185516726.html. [Accessed: 17-May-2016].

[59] “High Efficiency Amorphous Silicon Thin Film Solar Cells/solar

Panels For Sale - Buy 15kw Solar Panel (get Sun Powe Take All

Page 91: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

91

Home Load),Monocrystalline Photovoltaic Cell Solar Panels 250 Watt

For Solar Lighting System,Hanergy Apartment/villas Grid-connected

Home Solar Systems 3 Kw Flagship Series Solar Panels Product on

Alibaba.com,” www.alibaba.com. [Online]. Available:

//www.alibaba.com/product-detail/high-efficiency-amorphous-silicon-

thin-film_60185516726.html. [Accessed: 17-May-2016].

[60] “DM 77W CdTe Solar Module, 12v CdTe Solar Panels.” [Online].

Available: http://www.dmsolar.com/solar-module-

111.html?fb_xd_fragment. [Accessed: 17-May-2016].

[61] “Dye Solar Cell(tuv,Iec,Rohs,Ce,Mcs) - Buy Dye Solar Cell,Dye

Sensitized Solar Cell,Pv Solar Cell Product on Alibaba.com,”

www.alibaba.com. [Online]. Available: //www.alibaba.com/product-

detail/dye-solar-cell-TUV-IEC-ROHS_1401807338.html. [Accessed:

17-May-2016].

[62] “Oem/odm Dye Solar Cell - Buy Dye Solar Cell,Durable Use Diy

Solar Energy,Easy Carrying Folding Solar Panel 300w Product on

Alibaba.com,” www.alibaba.com. [Online]. Available:

//www.alibaba.com/product-detail/OEM-ODM-dye-solar-

cell_60380337072.html. [Accessed: 19-May-2016].

[63] “NASA Surface meteorology and Solar Energy - Available Tables.”

[Online]. Available: https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-

bin/sse/grid.cgi?&num=196147&lat=56.16&submit=Submit&hgt=100

&veg=17&sitelev=&[email protected]&p=grid_id&p=

swv_dwn&p=T10M&step=2&lon=15.58. [Accessed: 29-Apr-2016].

[64] “solar charge controller SC4060 30A/ 40A/ 50A/ 60A /80A 48V,

product picture - Makepolo.” [Online]. Available:

http://solargloble.en.makepolo.com/products/solar-charge-controller-

SC4060--30A-p62535786/img.html. [Accessed: 21-May-2016].

[65] “ENF Ltd.” [Online]. Available: /pv/panel-datasheet/Thin-film/835.

[Accessed: 11-May-2016].

[66] “Solar Panel Charge Controller 15Amp 20Amp 12V/24V KT1215

KT1220, View Solar Panel Charge Controller, Coretek Product

Details from Guangzhou Coretek Electronic Co., Ltd. on

Alibaba.com.” [Online]. Available:

https://mppt.en.alibaba.com/product/60143127554-

800872270/Solar_Panel_Charge_Controller_15Amp_20Amp_12V_24

V_KT1215_KT1220.html. [Accessed: 21-May-2016].

Page 92: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

92

[67] “12v/24v Hanfong Sr50 Solar Regulator Pwm Solar Charge Controller

- Buy China Solar Charge Controller,Solar Charge Controller

Mppt,Price Solar Charge Controller Product on Alibaba.com,”

www.alibaba.com. [Online]. Available: //www.alibaba.com/product-

detail/12v-24v-Hanfong-SR50-Solar-regulator_60325078560.html.

[Accessed: 21-May-2016].

[68] “WELLSEE WS-C2430 25A 12/24V solar battery charge

controller_charge regulator_Products_Physical therapy,health

product,therapeutic apparatus,Electro Acupuncture,Medical Supplies

are best selling on our website!” [Online]. Available: http://www.e-

bluelight.com/goods-45-WELLSEE+WS-

C2430+25A+1224V+solar+battery+charge+controller.html.

[Accessed: 21-May-2016].

[69] “SDC240V-100A--Yueqing Sandi Electric Co.,Ltd.” [Online].

Available:

http://www.lgis.cc/?en%2Fen_products%2FProduct119%2F506.html.

[Accessed: 22-May-2016].

[70] “Aliexpress.com: Comprar Ecnomical I P eSMART 12V / 24 V / 48V

40A MPPT solar charge controller 48 V 40A PV regulador 40A

regulador del cargador de batería de controler cargador fiable

proveedores en Shenzhen I-Panda New Energy Technology & Science

Co., Ltd.,” aliexpress.com. [Online]. Available:

//es.aliexpress.com/store/product/Ecnomical-I-P-eSMART-12V-24V-

48V-40A-MPPT-solar-charge-controller-48V-40A-PV-

regulator/610114_2031529273.html?src=ibdm_d03p0558e02r02.

[Accessed: 21-May-2016].

[71] “Aliexpress.com: Comprar Itracer IT6415ND 60A MPPT regulador

de carga Solar RS232 RS485 con protocolo Modbus CAN Bus 12 V

24 V 36 V 48 V trabajo auto de controlar la hipertensión fiable

proveedores en Ningbo Cinco Electronics Technology Co., Ltd,”

aliexpress.com. [Online]. Available:

//es.aliexpress.com/store/product/iTracer-IT6415ND-60A-MPPT-

Solar-Charge-Controller-RS232-RS485-with-Modbus-protocol-CAN-

Bus-12V-

24V/911465_32479738914.html?src=ibdm_d03p0558e02r02.

[Accessed: 21-May-2016].

[72] “Tracer-4210A MPPT Solar Charge Controller 40A--Inverter &

Charger Controller -Shanghai Tingen Electric Co.,ltd.” [Online].

Page 93: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

93

Available:

http://www.shtepower.com/index.php?_m=mod_product&_a=view&p

_id=333. [Accessed: 21-May-2016].

[73] “SDC240V-100A--Yueqing Sandi Electric Co.,Ltd.” [Online].

Available: http://www.lgis.cc/?en/en_products/Product119/506.html.

[Accessed: 19-May-2016].

[74] M. D. Hussein Ibrahim, “Wind-Diesel hybrid system: energy storage

system selection method,” 2012.

[75] “Lithium battery 12.8V 60Ah 0.75kwh CB BAT512600500.”

[Online]. Available:

http://www.cclcomponents.com/product.asp?ID=3745. [Accessed: 17-

May-2016].

[76] “Lead acid batteries for home solar energy storage - Solar Choice.”

[Online]. Available: http://www.solarchoice.net.au/blog/lead-acid-

batteries-for-home-solar-energy-storage. [Accessed: 25-Apr-2016].

[77] “AGM(BAT412201080) - Google Search.” [Online]. Available:

https://www.google.se/search?q=AGM(BAT412201080)&biw=625&

bih=573&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiN4tamzOP

MAhUhD5oKHRy6AEMQ_AUIBigB#imgrc=ocDfK4Papz9bDM%3

A. [Accessed: 18-May-2016].

[78] “Advantages & Limitations of the Lithium-ion Battery - Battery

University.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/is_lithium_ion_the_ide

al_battery. [Accessed: 18-May-2016].

[79] K. Zipp, “What is the best type of battery for solar storage?,” Solar

Power World. [Online]. Available:

http://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/2015/08/what-is-the-best-

type-of-battery-for-solar-storage/. [Accessed: 18-May-2016].

[80] “T105-RE, Trojan 6V 225 AH Premium Line Flooded Battery,” The

Solar Supermarket. [Online]. Available:

http://www.thesolarsupermarket.com/proddetail.php?prod=T105-RE.

[Accessed: 17-May-2016].

[81] “Lithium battery 12.8V 60Ah 0.75kwh CB BAT512600500.”

[Online]. Available:

http://www.cclcomponents.com/product.asp?ID=3745. [Accessed: 17-

May-2016].

Page 94: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

94

[82] M. A. Green, K. Emery, Y. Hishikawa, W. Warta, and E. D. Dunlop,

“Solar cell efficiency tables (version 46),” Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl.,

vol. 23, no. 7, pp. 805–812, Jul. 2015.

[83] “CellCube flow battery system from GILDEMEISTER energy

solutions.” [Online]. Available:

http://energy.gildemeister.com/en/store/cellcube-fb-10-20-

30#Overview. [Accessed: 10-May-2016].

[84] “UPS Premium DSP0.9 Hybrid 10-500kVA (3/3) & 10-30kVA (3/1),”

visionups. [Online]. Available: https://visionups.com/en/solar-

product/11-ups-premium-dsp09-hybrid-10-500kva-33-10-30kva-

31.html. [Accessed: 17-May-2016].

[85] “String Inverters vs. Microinverters vs. Power Optimizers |

EnergySage.” [Online]. Available:

https://www.energysage.com/solar/101/string-inverters-

microinverters-power-optimizers. [Accessed: 19-Apr-2016].

[86] “350w 600w 1000w 1500w Solar Hybrid Controller Inverter For Solar

System - Buy Solar Micro Inverter 600w,Inverter Price 1000w,Hybrid

Solar Inverter 350w Product on Alibaba.com,” www.alibaba.com.

[Online]. Available: //www.alibaba.com/product-detail/350w-600w-

1000w-1500w-solar-hybrid_60098608945.html. [Accessed: 17-May-

2016].

[87] “350w 600w 1000w 1500w Solar Hybrid Controller Inverter For Solar

System - Buy Solar Micro Inverter 600w,Inverter Price 1000w,Hybrid

Solar Inverter 350w Product on Alibaba.com,” www.alibaba.com.

[Online]. Available: //www.alibaba.com/product-detail/350w-600w-

1000w-1500w-solar-hybrid_60098608945.html. [Accessed: 17-May-

2016].

[88] “Power Inverter Pure Sine Wave Three Phase Solar Inverter With

Battery Charger - Buy Solar Three Phase Inverter,Power Pure Sine

Wave Inverter,Inverter With Battery Charger Product on

Alibaba.com,” www.alibaba.com. [Online]. Available:

//www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Power-inverter-pure-sine-wave-

three_60267642266.html. [Accessed: 19-May-2016].

[89] “Power Inverter Pure Sine Wave Three Phase Solar Inverter With

Battery Charger - Buy Solar Three Phase Inverter,Power Pure Sine

Wave Inverter,Inverter With Battery Charger Product on

Alibaba.com,” www.alibaba.com. [Online]. Available:

Page 95: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

95

//www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Power-inverter-pure-sine-wave-

three_60267642266.html. [Accessed: 19-May-2016].

[90] “BMW i3,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 12-Apr-2016.

[91] “BMW i3 : Range & charging.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.bmw.com/com/en/newvehicles/i/i3/2015/showroom/range

_charging.html. [Accessed: 26-Apr-2016].

[92] “2016 Spark EV: Electric Vehicle | Chevrolet.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.chevrolet.com/spark-ev-electric-vehicle.html. [Accessed:

19-Apr-2016].

[93] “Chevrolet Spark,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 19-Apr-2016.

[94] “Chevrolet Spark EV,” PluginCars.com, 24-Jan-2014. [Online].

Available: http://www.plugincars.com/chevrolet-spark-ev. [Accessed:

26-Apr-2016].

[95] J. 2013 and B. K. A. WILSON, “Chevrolet Spark EV - Car and

Driver.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.caranddriver.com/chevrolet/spark-ev. [Accessed: 26-Apr-

2016].

[96] “Nissan Leaf,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 15-Apr-2016.

[97] “Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 20-

Apr-2016.

[98] “2016 FIAT 500e - All Electric Car with Zero Emissions.” [Online].

Available: http://www.fiatusa.com/en/500e/. [Accessed: 26-Apr-

2016].

[99] “Fiat 500 (2007),” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 24-Apr-2016.

[100] “Fiat 500e,” PluginCars.com, 23-Jan-2014. [Online]. Available:

http://www.plugincars.com/fiat-500e. [Accessed: 26-Apr-2016].

[101] “2016 Focus Electric | View Focus Electric Highlights | Ford.com.”

[Online]. Available: http://www.ford.com/cars/focus/trim/electric/.

[Accessed: 25-Apr-2016].

[102] “Ford Focus Electric,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 24-Apr-

2016.

[103] KIA, “Electric Car 3 Charge Levels | Kia Soul EV | Kia Cars.”

[Online]. Available: http://www.kia.com/us/en/content/ev-

faqs_2016/charging/three-charge-levels. [Accessed: 26-Apr-2016].

[104] “Kia Soul EV,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 05-Mar-2016.

[105] “B-Class Electric Drive | Mercedes-Benz,” Mercedes-Benz USA.

[Online]. Available:

Page 96: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

96

http://www.mbusa.com/mercedes/vehicles/class/class-B/bodystyle-

EDV. [Accessed: 25-Apr-2016].

[106] “Mercedes B-Class Electric Drive,” PluginCars.com, 15-Feb-2014.

[Online]. Available: http://www.plugincars.com/mercedes-b-class-e-

cell. [Accessed: 25-Apr-2016].

[107] “2016 Mitsubishi i-MiEV Trims.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.mitsubishicars.com/imiev/trims. [Accessed: 26-Apr-

2016].

[108] “Mitsubishi i-MiEV,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 31-Mar-

2016.

[109] “Renault Fluence Z.E.,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 04-Mar-

2016.

[110] “Renault Fluence Z.E. - Charging Systems,” e-Station Store.

[Online]. Available: http://www.e-station-store.com/en/28-renault-

fluence-ze. [Accessed: 26-Apr-2016].

[111] “How to Charge your Tesla Model S at Home,” Drive & Dream, 02-

Mar-2014. .

[112] “Model S | Tesla Motors.” [Online]. Available:

https://www.teslamotors.com/models. [Accessed: 18-Apr-2016].

[113] “Tesla Model S,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 18-Apr-2016.

[114] “Using public EV charging stations with your Tesla Model S,”

TESLARATI.com, 06-May-2014. .

[115] “e-Golf Brochures & price list : Volkswagen UK.” [Online].

Available: http://www.volkswagen.co.uk/new/e-golf-vii/which-

model/brochures. [Accessed: 25-Apr-2016].

[116] “e-golf-vii pricing & specifications : Volkswagen UK.” [Online].

Available: http://www.volkswagen.co.uk/new/e-golf-vii/which-model-

compare/details/1770#!#overview. [Accessed: 25-Apr-2016].

[117] “A Simple Guide to DC Fast Charging,” FleetCarma, 04-Feb-2016. .

[118] “Nominal power (photovoltaic),” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

06-Aug-2015.

[119] “SAE J1772,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 31-Mar-2016.

[120] “32A Level 2 EVSE HCS-40 | ClipperCreek.” [Online]. Available:

http://store.clippercreek.com/hcs-40-hcs-40p-ev-charging-station.

[Accessed: 19-May-2016].

[121] “IEC - World Plugs: Plug Type F.” [Online]. Available:

http://www.iec.ch/worldplugs/typeF.htm. [Accessed: 20-Apr-2016].

Page 97: Charging electric cars from solar energy - diva-portal.org935136/FULLTEXT01.pdf · Charging electric cars from solar energy . 2 ... Also we provide different car charging method by

97

[122] “AC power plugs and sockets,” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 13-

Apr-2016.