Chapters 12 and 13

Reform and Division

An Age of Reform 1820-1860

During the prosperous 1820s-40s there was an increasing concern in society as a whole for the need to reform- to make America as great as we felt it could be.

The optimism of this time period shaped a number on movements regarding the desire for reform in social class issues, women’s rights/political inequality , religion and racism.

Most reformers were middle class- generally from Northeast and Midwest. (south involved in some, but not others) Women vitally important- guardians of virtue etc…

Reformers had a profound effect on politics and society.

The Reform Impulse

Utopian Communities If improvement is the goal-

one way to achieve is by grouping together with like minded individuals to achieve your purpose. (whatever that may be) Often disillusioned by materialism and industrialism, wanted to create a simpler, more harmonious lifestyle

Generally collective- all property owned by the group (essentially forerunners of socialism and communism)

1st American communal movement. Founded by “Mother Ann” Stanley in England, came to US in 1787. Name comes from religious ceremonies where they were supposed to be experiencing the holy spirit.

Had 20 communities in NY and OH with about 5000 members at peak.

Believed in equality of sexes - opposed to marriage (and sex) made it hard for numbers to grow. (adopted orphans)

Prosperous- known for quality furniture making (simplicity) Long lasting- survived until 1940s

The Shakers

OneidaFounded 1848 by John

Humphrey Noyes based on new religious morality that sought free love, “complex” marriage, and selection of parents for better offspring. (sort of the anti-shaker)

Noyes was very controlling, almost dictatorial. Prosperous due to metalwork (traps and silverware)

Founded 1841, Brook Farm was another Utopian Community- but based on the principles of Transcendentalism- the belief that the spiritual world is more real, and more important than the physical one. Truth therefore “transcends” the limitations of what we can experience.

Inspired by European Romanticism, a reaction to industrialization that stressed passion and emotion- esp in the arts. Emphasized individualism, and self reliance. Hostile to “conventional” institutions.

Brook farm was meant to show that intellect and physical labor are not mutually exclusive. Attracted writers and artists, nonconformists and reformers- but not farmers. Community collapsed in 1846 after a fire.

Worldly Communities

The OwenitesRobert Owen was a British industrialist- who didn’t like the degradation of factory

workers. 1824 – Owen buys a town in Indiana, and decided to create “New Harmony”. Wanted to stop pursuit of wealth in favor of a “new moral world” of communal living. Failed within a decade

Josiah Warren created totally unregulated settlements at Utopia OH, and Modern Times NY. Goods valued on how much labor it took to make them- no “nonproducers” allowed. But the NO rules thing ended up with chaos….

Many reform movements drew inspiration from the 2nd Great Awakening – which called for people to live more godly lives.

“Perfectionism” – all humans are capable of indefinite improvement.

Took reform movements that already existed (temperance, Abolitionism) to much more intense levels. Didn’t just want to make things “better” striving for extreme change.

Religion and Reform

Evangelicals called drinking a sin- and alcohol abuse was a serious problem in 19th c America. Drunkenness decreased ability to work, and increased abuse of families. Temperance Movement promoted by churches to get men to slow or stop drinking voluntarily.. American Temperance Society founded 1826TS Arthur’s “10 Nights in a Barroom and what I saw

there” 2nd best seller of 1850s. Temperance Fairly successful in reducing

consumption, (in 1840s it was ½ what it had been in 1830s) but many started to look for Prohibition of Alcohol entirely. (Maine 1st state to do so in 1851) Least sectional of all reform movements

Temperance

Remember- this is the age of individualism – and reform movements tended to mess with that, which could get awkward

Catholic immigrants particularly resentful – didn’t like “protestant morality” forced on them (and they liked to drink too). Plus, Catholics believe in original sin, so perfectionism is a waste of time….

Critics of Reform

Individualism and Reform needed to exist in a delicate balance. Reformers often explained what they were doing as attempts to “liberate” people from the “slavery” of drink, or sin

Also said that true self fulfillment comes from self-discipline – and that was what they were trying to teach people.

Felt immigrants lacked self control, and led lives of vice and sin. Published “Tracts” (religious pamphlets) and flooded them in immigrant areas.

Reformers and Freedom

In America- “crime” has always called for “punishment”. During 1830s and 1840s, one aspect of reform was taking those who were outside the system (by choice, like criminals, or not, like orphans and the mentally ill) and creating places where their character could be transformed

Jails for criminals (long term) poorhouses, orphanages, asylums for the mentally ill. Intention was to “cure” whatever made person act “incorrectly”

The Invention of the Asylum

The largest (and most important) “Institutions” built during the reform era were tax supported schools. Local primary schools already common (in North – south not into this) this expands on those “one room schoolhouses”.

Horace Mann (educational reformer) said schools would “equalize the conditions of men”- an alternative for those who could not afford to buy land, they would provide self-discipline and social advancement.

Would also reinforce morality through rules: obedience to authority, promptness, attendance, and organizing ones day into pre-determined periods. (Gee, school is like a factory….) Also provided the 1st really “respectable” career for middle class women.

The Common School

The Crusade Against SlaveryAbolitionist societies

have been around since colonial age (Quakers). Had been often discussed at end of revolution, then died away, only to be reawakened with the Missouri Compromise

Many abolitionists favored gradual emancipation and Colonization (return to Africa)- Favored by Henry Clay,

John Marshall, Daniel Webster, J Q Adams, Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln.

American Colonization society founded 1816- established Liberia on West Coast of Africa.

Assumption was that Blacks/Whites couldn’t live together on equal terms – much like Indian Removal

Colonization

Approx 15,000 blacks go to Liberia (capital Monrovia) from 1820-1860, some voluntarily (already Free), some slaves freed on condition they leave

But since our slave trade outlawed 1808- most Blacks are native born- not “African”, and they strongly resented the notion that they couldn’t live here.

Many Black organizations removed “African” from their name- want to be seen as “American”

Blacks and Colonization

Abolitionist movement became much more aggressive beginning in 1830s. Rejected gradual approach of past

Demanded immediate, complete, uncompensated emancipation. All about exposing the evils of slavery- often “in your face” screaming and demanding justice.

Founded on writings of David Walker (An Appeal to the Colored Citizens) which was all about hypocrisy of liberty v. slavery

Occasional suggestions that the “virtuous” north should secede from the “decadent” South. Popularity of movement made it clear this issue was not going to be solved quickly or easily.

Militant Abolitionism

The Emergence of GarrisonThe voice of the militant abolitionism.

1831 begins to publish “the Liberator” – a weekly Journal.

“I will be harsh as truth, I will not equivocate, I will not excuse, I will not retreat a single inch, and I will be heard”

Actually got word out in south- southerners so offended they reprinted his editorials

Elijah Lovejoy- his printing press destroyed 4 times, eventually murdered by pro slavery faction in Illinois.

Theodore Weld- founder of American Anti-Slavery society, wrote American Slavery As It Is. great orator, known for sermons during 2nd awakening. Really started talking about slavery as a SIN, which changed the conversation- used stories published in SOUTHERN papers as source- south could not say he was making things up.

Arthur and Lewis Tappan- funded the Liberator.Grimke Sisters- only well known southern female

abolitionists (but their main focus was women’s rights)

Spreading the Abolitionist Message

South said that abolitionist’s goal was to create slave rebellion – but most (not all, as we will see later) abolitionists rejected violence

Instead, their goal was to show people the sinfulness of slavery (Moral Suasion) – and how BOTH the north and south were complicit in benefitting from it.

They were radical social critics, their language was deliberately provocative, and calculated to stir people up.

Slavery and Moral Suasion

Continued with the idea that freedom comes not from owning land- but from individualism- being in charge of yourself and your own destiny.

Yes, factory workers have hard lives, but they can quit their jobs, move, have a family- all things denied to slaves.

Insisted upon the idea that Freedom itself (as opposed to property or self government) is the most fundamental American right

Abolitionists and the Idea of Freedom

Abolitionists were the 1st to take “color” out of the definition of an American. (up til now, could only be a full “citizen” if white) Demanded equality before the law regardless of race.

1st to say that Blacks ARE American, b/c they are born here, just like us. They are no more “African” b/c of their heritage than a white person is “English” (or Irish or German etc) by theirs. Used Liberty Bell as their symbol (which helped make it famous)

Also helped expand the definition of “cruelty”. Beating etc came to be seen as wrong- the idea that a person has the right to “bodily integrity”.

A New Vision of America

Frederick Douglas escaped as a young man, self educated. Wrote Narrative on the life of Frederick Douglas, a famous account of the life of a slave

Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1851) most famous book of the age (only the bible sold more) Highly dramatized (and not super accurate, Stowe had never been to south) but portrayed slaves as sympathetic characters, Christians and families at the mercy of slaveholders – Melodramatic, but effective.

Black Abolitionists

Abolition and RaceWhile Abolitionists fought

hard for reform, Racism ran deep. Leaders of movements were generally white- so by 1840s Free Blacks sought independent movements.

And yet, what is remarkable is how far abolitionists pulled away from what were accepted ideas of the time, fighting legal and political battles, and challenging what it meant to be a “man”

In 1852 Fredrick Douglas gave a famous speech on Independence day “What, to a slave, is the 4th of July” – saying that America could not choose to celebrate ourselves as land of the free, and continue to allow slavery.

Black communities would celebrate the anniversary of things like the end of the slave trade, or dates when various other countries had abolished slavery. Held up England as a land of Justice, and US as land of Tyranny.

Free blacks also pointed out that while they were not property, they were certainly not being invited to be a full part of America

Slavery and American Freedom

It was not only the south that hated abolitionism- (though they did, and southern postmasters would do things like burn abolitionist mailings etc, which is against the law) There were also people in the North – who made big $$ from cotton etc- who wanted abolitionists silences

William Lloyd Garrison dragged through streets in Boston, Elijah Lovejoy killed by a Mob in Illinois, Anti-Abolitionists burned Penn. Hall to prevent meetings.

To try to sweep the issue under the rug, in 1836 Congress adopted a “Gag resolution” saying no abolitionist bills would be debated/voted on. Repealed 1844 (JQA)

Gentlemen of Property and Standing

An effective technique was to appeal to Northerners that their OWN freedoms were threatened by slavery (after all, if it could happen to one group)

It’s never easy to hold on to an unpopular opinion- and most people in North just wanted to ignore the slave issue. But Abolitionists would not be silenced, and worked to assure their right to discuss issue- even if it made others uncomfortable.

Slavery and Civil Liberties

The Origins of Feminism

The Rise of the Public Woman

Women were tremendously important to the abolitionist movement –after all, we were the guardians of public virtue. Most were

evangelical protestants, fired up after 2nd Great Awakening

LOTS of people were involved in politics in the 1830s and 40s (remember those 80% voter turnouts) and women were excluded. In reform, women found a way to be involved in the issues our nation was experiencing, some even with leadership roles. (Dorothea Dix and her work with mentally ill)

Attacked double standards of era- demanding a voice.

Women and Free SpeechWorking as abolitionists, women began to see

correlations to their OWN subordinate legal status.Grimke Sisters: criticized for giving speeches to mixed

gender crowds on abolitionism led them to feminism. Defended not only the right of women to take part in debate, but to share social and educational privileges enjoyed by men.

Letter on Equality of the Sexes – critique of the idea that women and men had to have separate spheres. Demanded equal pay for equal work. “I know nothing of men’s rights and women’s rights. My doctrine is that whatever it is morally right for men to do, it is morally right for women to do”.

Women’s RightsLucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, abolitionists

turned away from international anti-slavery convention in London b/c of their sex - which led them to feminism. Organized

Seneca Falls Convention 70 women and 30 men in upstate NY. 1st discussion of Women’s suffrage, as well as property rights (coverture still common), need for education and increased econ opportunities.

Declaration of Sentiments: modeled on Dec of Independence, “All men and women are created equal” protested “injuries and usurpations to the rights of women”

Feminism and FreedomWomen’s Rights advocates insisted that women

deserved individual choices (besides whom to marry) and the possibility of self realization that was essential to freedom.

Middle Class women have more time (servants etc) – but less fulfillment, women were denied higher education and access to the vast majority of “professions”

Margaret Fuller: transcendentalist (so freedom is internal, a quest for personal development), said women needed education to decide their lives for themselves. Became the 1st female editor of New York Tribune

Women and WorkMarket revolution had given women new roles –and lower

class women worked HARD. Disparity of Republican Motherhood / Cult of Domesticity vs Economic roles . Women are seen as mentally/physically weak (despite their work)

Sojourner Truth – a emancipated (from gradual era of Revolution) slave gave famous “Aren’t I a Woman” speech 1851Amelia Bloomer: advocated “Turkish trousers” rather than skirts for women…. seen as indecentFeminists challenged the idea that freedom and reason belonged to men alone, and that issues of justice and liberty did not apply to the family.

The Slavery of Sex Again, women could empathize with the legal issues of

slavery- b/c they had very few legal rights themselves- especially if married. Remember from the last chapter- southern slaveholders often compared their wives and their slaves as naturally inferior.

Mary Wollstonecraft had written Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1790s (“Why are all men born free and all women born slaves?”)

Women did not have rights to own/control property (even if they had it before marriage), control their own wages (often paid to husband) though some states (like NY) began to enact laws separating husbands/wives property after Panic of 1837

Social FreedomAgain, like abolitionists- feminists maintained that the

central idea of freedom is having the decision making power in your own life – including your own body. There were very few laws against physically or sexually abusive husbands (as long as they were not “intolerable”), and birth control, while in infancy, was illegal in many states.

Though feminists challenged the cult of domesticity, they did use the stereotype of women’s greater morality to say that if women were allowed increased access to public life- they would be an influence for good.

Lucy Stone: kept her own name after she married. Susan B. Anthony: demanded laws that gave custody rights to mothers, the right to collect their own wages, and inherit property.

The Abolitionist SchismAbolitionism and Feminism became intertwined, two groups

searching for recognition, and full citizenship. But some MALE abolitionist leaders became uncomfortable with the dual role of the struggle, and thought that women had overstepped their bounds, or that supporting women’s rights as well (as leaders like William Lloyd Garrison did) made them seem TOO radical.

1840 Abby Kelly was appointed to a leadership position in the American Anti-Slavery Society, which offended enough men that a group split off and formed the American and Foreign Anti Slavery Society (clever title guys)

Mainstream press and churches dismissive- said this “nonsense” would hurt women’s more important reform work. But- women gained greater access to education (esp college) and property rights before the Civil War

Chapter 13

A House Divided 1840-1861

While sectional tensions were rising during the 1840s, a place where most Americans could agree was on the idea of Expansionism- That God had chosen America to control the Western Hemisphere . Really started with Indian removal- that focused the drive west. Our size and growth (pop doubles every 20 years) seemed to make it obvious- and this was one area Whigs and Democrats alike could support.

John O’Sullivan coined phrase “manifest destiny”. Frederick Jackson Turner Wrote The Significance of the Frontier in American History (1893). Said the west is what forged America’s character- we were forged by conquering the continent.

Yet expansion only exacerbated the tensions, as new territory gained became yet another place to argue over- esp in regards to expansion (or not) of slavery

The Fruits of Manifest Destiny

Panic of 1837 sent a lot of people west of the Mississippi, and that was a new thing- up till that time it had been mostly trappers.

1840-45 5000 people move to Oregon ( “Oregon Fever” Willamette Valley), by 1860 300,000 people have moved over the Rockies to OR and CA

At the time, Oregon was claimed by both US and Eng (we said it was Louisiana Purchase, they say it’s Canada)

Adams – Onis Treaty says we Share

Continental Expansion

The Mexican Frontier: New Mexico and CaliforniaMexico won

independence in 1821- and controlled huge territory -6.5 m people but not many in “New Mexico” (30,000 Sp 10,000 In) or California (3,200 Sp – land grants, and 170,000 In)

Santa Fe trail and Pacific trade linked NM and CA with US

In 1821- the new gov’t of Mexico sold a large land grant (18,000 acres)to Stephen Austin. By 1830, Austin had organized and sold that land to 7,000 people

By 1835 there were 27,000 American settlers- who had come to TX with about 3000 slaves to farm cotton.

Mexico was worried so many people were coming- and that they were protestant Americans with no thought of changing culture- Austin wanted autonomy, and eventually independence.

Issue got stickier when Mexico abolished slavery- and Texans had no intention of complying.

The Texas Revolt

The AlamoPres. Of Mexico sends General Antonio Lopez de

Santa Anna to force Texans to follow the law. Lay siege to the ALAMO (a mission in San Antonio) March 6 1836, Santa Anna attacks and kills 187 Texans (including Davie Crocket and Jim Bowie) “Remember the Alamo” become the Texan’s war cry.

March 2nd Texas had declared itself and independent nation- and April 21 Sam Houston led Texans to victory at Battle of San Jacinto where Santa Anna was taken prisoner and forced to recognize Texan Independence. When he got home- Santa Anna (and Mexico) repudiated the treaty

Issue tricky for US- the Texans were Americans, but support could bring war with Mexico. Furthermore, if Texas joined US, it would be a slave state. By 1845 there are 150,000 in TX

The Election of 1844John Tyler had taken presidency in 1841

Wm H Harrison died. Tyler was a strange Whig president- they decline to run him in 1844

But main issue of the 1840s is expansion- which makes presidential campaign far more about foreign policy than domestic

Presidential Rankings: C-Span Survey, 2009

1. Abraham Lincoln2. Franklin Roosevelt3. George Washington4. Theodore Roosevelt5. Harry Truman6. John Kennedy7. Thomas Jefferson8. Dwight Eisenhower9. Woodrow Wilson10. Ronald Reagan11. Lyndon Johnson12. James Polk13. Andrew Jackson14. James Monroe

15. Bill Clinton16. William McKinley17. John Adams18. George H.W. Bush19. John Quincy Adams20. James Madison21. Grover Cleveland22. Gerald Ford23. Ulysses Grant24. William Taft25. Jimmy Carter26. Calvin Coolidge27. Richard Nixon28. James Garfield

29. Zachary Taylor

30. Benjamin Harrison

31. Martin Van Buren

32. Chester Arthur

33. Rutherford Hayes

34. Herbert Hoover

35. John Tyler

36. George W. Bush

37. Millard Fillmore

38. Warren Harding

39. William Harrison

40. Franklin Pierce

41. Andrew Johnson

42. James Buchanan

Election of 1844An expression of Manifest Destiny- Texas and Oregon

were the central issues in the campaign. (would enter union with balance of slave/free)

Henry Clay Whig candidate (again, this is his 4th attempt!)– waffles on Texas (costs him presidency, as does abolition party)

Martin Van Buren expected democratic candidate, but couldn’t muster support- so Democrats nominate “dark horse” candidate James k Polk. (a protégé of Jackson’s- some historians call him the only other Jacksonian Democrat. “Young Hickory”)

Polk wins 170-105- seen as a mandate for annexation…but Tyler steals Polk’s thunder by annexing before he left office

The Road to WarPolk was virtually unknown before elected, but came with a

clear platform of things he wanted to do. - all of which he achieved in less than 4 years…Lower Tariff from 32%-25% (Walker Tariff- which still

makes good $$ b/c it happens to be a boom cycle economically)

Restore independent treasury system – 1846Settle Oregon Dispute - One of the campaign slogans had

been “54’40 or fight”- but with Texas joining the union in 1845- keeping balance was more important, so compromise in Oregon became attractive. Settled along 49th parallel. Polk Knew treaty would be unpopular- so he didn’t spearhead it himself, passed it to Senate for negotiation

Acquire California – this one is going to get tricky- Mexico does not want to sell…..

Mexico did not appreciate US annexation (They cut dip. relations)

Boundary dispute: US says Texas territory goes to Rio Grande, Mexico says it stops at Nueces river. Polk

wants to negotiate boundary- and try to buy CA for $30 million- Mexican officials won’t even meet- and Mexican army attacks US troops patrolling disputed area. (btw- Polk sent army there to provoke attack)

Polk asks congress for Dec. of War- controversial. Whigs not sure about land claims…North fears this is to expand slavery

Majority of Americans are fans, but the North is worried, not just b/c of slavery, but b/c we are pushing Mexico around to get what we want (Thoreau goes to jail) I mean, it’s not like we aren’t going to win…. Not something that gets a lot of press here in US, but Mexico still strongly resents

Ulysses S Grant, and Robert E Lee (both of whom served in war) said it was an embarrassment. Training ground for civil war- many officers (from both sides) get their military experience here. Not bad in terms of casualties- only 13,000 Americans die, most of those from disease- so we decide fighting isn’t all that hard

Abraham Lincoln (Congressman at time) challenged Polk’s declaration, and it made him unpopular at home

The War and It’s Critics

1st time we have fought (in a big way) on “Foreign” soil- changes the game.

Multi pronged attack:California: wants to be a part of US, declares

themselves independent of Mexico (Bear Flag Republic) Capt John C Fremont and Stephen Kearny arrive with US army to defend against Mexican forces (took New Mexico for good measure

Mexico: Largest amount of fighting took place. Feb 1847 Zachary Taylor (becomes overnight hero) defeats Santa Anna at Battle of Buena Vista, but Mex. Gov’t still won’t negotiate…so Polk sends army to take Mexico city…suddenly they are willing to talk.

Combat in Mexico

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 1848

Mexico recognized annexation of Texas (to Rio Grande), and Ceded territory to US based on successes of Fremont, Kearny, and Taylor.

US agreed to pay $15 compensation for landMexican Cession (which, including Texas, is even

bigger than Louisiana Purchase) will eventually create: California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah - and bits of Colorado and Wyoming.

We got half a million square miles of land, and about 100,000 Spanish, and 150,000 more Native Americans.

Treaty guaranteed “male citizens the free enjoyment of their liberty and property, and all the rights of Americans” – but we really only meant large landowners of European descent.

Dark side of manifest destiny is that the “destiny” (like so many other things) only applies to white men –we are convinced this is evidence of the superiority of the Anglo Saxon Race (defined by being NOT black, Indian, Hispanic, or Catholic)

So….if we want it, we should have it. Many Americans (esp Southerners) wanted to take all of Mexico. Eventually decide there are too many Mexicans there….

Race and Manifest Destiny

Race is more than skin color, it also involved culture, national origin, class, and religion.

In Mexican Cession- only whites could purchase land – and free blacks can’t even live there.

“Spanish” Mexicans (generally defined by wealth and social position) were invited to be a part of society, those who were “too Mexican” were not –and that was a lot of people. New Mexico did not become a state until 1912.

Redefining Race

California has a white population of 15,000 when war ended. January 1848 Gold found at Sutter’s Mill (outside

Sacramento)- when news got out people began to flood to area, and by end of year over $6 million in gold had been discovered in various areas in California.

In 1849 over 100,000 people came (either overland or by sea) to try their luck. By 1852, there are 360,000 people there. Including our 1st real wave of Asian Immigration – 25,000 Chinese (who had been leased as contract workers)

Most don’t find gold. Some leave- but businesses serving the “49ers” made excellent profits - like Levi Strauss- who made durable work pants for miners.

Women ran boarding houses and restaurants, ran laundries, and brothels- but they were scare. Men outnumbered women 3/1

Gold Rush California

“Gold Fever” created chaos and lawlessness – and attacks against “outsiders”: Mexicans, Chileans, Chinese, French, Indians carried out by “committees of vigilance”.

To get things under control (they need federal support)- California drafted a constitution, and applied to congress for statehood (bypassing territorial phase). Constitution did not include slavery, which upset South (we’ll come back to this)

As usual, things don’t go well for Native Americans. Population dropped from 150,000 to 30,000 by 1860. Indian children could be declared orphans or vagrants and be bought and sold as laborers.

California and the Boundaries of Freedom

Gold discovered in Australia in 1851. During the 1850s, California and Australia produced 80% of world gold supply (really helped Eng and US in terms of gold reserves and capitalism)

Aborigines did not fair well, nor did Chinese who came to mine

The Other Gold Rush

Before 1850 we didn’t deal all that much with Asia- kind of a pain to get there… but California and Oregon created US states on a new ocean- facing an new continent on the other side.

Japanese had been isolationist since 1500s- allowed Dutch 1 ship a year- no trade for anyone else.

1853 US sent Commodore Matthew Perry (brother of Oliver Perry from 1812) to open trade with Japan- which he does at gunpoint

Successful- sparks Meiji restoration and industrialization of Japan- turning them into the superpower of the Pacific- and they don’t forget who forced them to change

Opening Japan