Chapter4 Work Study
130
INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT Presented by BABU.E.R Asst.Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering Bangalore Institute of Technology Bangalore-560004 Dept of Mechanical Engg, BIT
description
industrial management notes of 4th chapter
Transcript of Chapter4 Work Study
INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT
Presented by
BABU.E.RAsst.Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangalore Institute of TechnologyBangalore-560004
Dept of Mechanical Engg, BIT
Unit -IV
WORK STUDY, INCENTIVES, HEALTH AND SAFETY
WORK STUDY Work study investigates the work done in an organization
and it aims at finding the best and most efficient way of
using available resources i.e., men ,material , money and
machinery and to achieve the best production in minimum
possible time.
WORK STUDY
Work study is a technique which deals with the problems:
(i) As to how should a job be done; and
(ii) How much time a job should take for completion
Work study mainly involves methods study and time
study or work measurement.
Work study = Motion study + Time study
According to the British Standard Institution,
“Work Study is defined as---
Examination of human work in all its contents and which lead
systematically to the investigation of all the factors which
effects the efficiency and economy of the situation being
reviewed in order to effect improvement.”
Method study Method study may be defined as a
systematic investigation of existing method of
doing the job in order to develop and install
an efficient, effective, easy and with less
fatigue procedure of doing the same job at
lower cost.
Once method study is developed for a job,
time study is done.
Time studyTime study may be defined as art of observing and
recording the time required to complete the job by a
qualified worker at a defined level of performance by
various techniques to measure.
After analyzing how job is done? And how much time the
job will take to complete? We are in a position to
understand the concept of work study.
Objectives of Work Study
To determine the best method of performing each
operation.
To eliminate wastage so that production increases with
less fatigue
Used determining the standard time that a qualified
worker should take to perform the operation when
working at a normal pace
Uniform and improved production flow,
Higher productive efficiency,
Reduced manufacturing costs,
Fast and accurate delivery dates,
Better employee-employer relations,
Better service to customers,
Job security and job satisfaction to workers,
Better working and other conditions, and
Higher wages to workers.
ADVANTAGES OF WORK STUDY
Method study Method study may be defined as a systematic
investigation of existing method of doing the
job in order to develop and install an efficient,
effective, easy and with less fatigue
procedure of doing the same job at lower
cost.
Steps or procedure for Method studyThe various steps involved in method study are:-
Select the worker to be studied
Observe and record all the relevant information
Critical examination
Develop the best method
Install the best method
Maintain the new method
Select the worker to be studied
Select the worker to be studied.
Define the objectives to be achieved.
The objectives may be reducing cost, reduce
bottlenecks and reduce fatigue in order to
increase the efficiency
Record all the relevant information's pertaining to the existing methods ( if any) in
details and in the form of a chart to obtained a more clear picture above the same.
COMMONLY USED RECORDING TECHNIQUES
1.Outline Process Charts2. Flow Process Chart3. Two Handed Process Chart4. Multiple Activity Chart5. Simo Chart6. Flow Diagrams7. String Diagrams8. Cycle graph9. Chronocycle graph10.Travel Chart
Man Type
Material Type
Equipment Type
USING TIME SCALE
Observe and record all the relevant information
EXAMINE
Examine the recorded events thoroughly and get
the answers of questions. Later an activity can
be eliminated, simplified or combined to get a
best solution.
BASIC QUESTIONS ARE
the PURPOSE for which
the PLACE at whichthe SEQUENCE in whichthe PERSON by whomthe MEANS by which
ELIMINIATING
COMBINING
RE-ARRANGING
OR
SIMPLIFING
those activitiesWith a view to
SECONDARY QUESTIONS
The secondary questions cover the second stage of the
questioning technique, during which the answers to the primary
questions are subjected to further query to determine whether
possible alternatives of place, sequence, persons and means are
practicable and preferred as a means of improvement upon the
existing method.
PURPOSE: what is done?
why is it done?
what else might be done?
what should be done?
PLACE: where is it done?
Why is it done there?
Where else might it is done?
Where should it be done?
SEQUENCE: When is it done?
Why is it done?
When might it be done?
When should it be done?
PERSON: who does it?
Why does that person do it?
Who else might do it?
Who should do it?
MEANS: How is it done?
Why is it done that way?
How else might it be done?
How should it be done ?
DEVELOP THE IMPROVED METHOD After the critical examination the best method is developed, and
the method should be---- Practical and feasible Safe and effective Economical acceptable
The report should show: Relative costs in material, labor and overheads of the two
methods, and savings expected. The cost of installing the new method, including the cost of
new equipment and of re-laying out shops or working areas
Executive actions required to implement the new method.
It should also give details regarding : The tools and equipment to be used A description of the method A diagram of the work place layout, jigs/fixtures etc
INSTALLING THE IMPROVED METHOD Install the best developed method and this installation
involves three phases namely—(a) planning
(b) arranging
(c) implementation
In the first 2 phases necessary arrangements are made for available resources and the 3rd phase is implementing the standard practice.
Maintaining new method by periodic checks and verifications.
Once a method is installed, it should be maintained in its specified form, and is not
allowed to slip back to old form or introduction of any other unauthorized changes.
For proper maintenance, following steps are advised:
(i) Copies of the job instruction sheets should be distributed to all concern.
These sheets must supply the detail for setting up the job and proper
operation.
(ii) Routine checks are necessary to compare what is actually being done
against the job instruction sheets.
(iii) Selection and training of persons must be done according to the job
specifications for this new method.
MAINTAIN
Definitions
ANALYSIS OF MOTION(Motion study)
Motion means the movement of the limbs of a worker during manufacture
of a product. So by carefully observing a worker a number of unnecessary
and unproductive movements can be identified and eliminated.
Frank B Gilbreth. Is the father of motion study and he defined it as
“science of eliminating wastage resulting from inefficient and unnecessary
motions”
Motion Study was enlarged and it was named as Method Study
Aims (Objects) of Motion study
1. To eliminate wastage of time and labor.
2. To reduce fatigue and boredom of work by avoiding unnecessary movements.
3. To find the best way of doing a job.
4. To have more effective utilization of materials, machines and workers.
5. To improve the design of work place layout.
6. To standardize the method, obtained after conducting the motion study.
7. To train the individual worker in its practice as per standardizedmethod.
Principles of Motion Economy
Developed over many years of practical experience in work design
Guidelines to help determine
Work method
Workplace layout
Tools, and equipment
Objective: to maximize efficiency and minimize worker fatigue
Some of them seem so obvious but these principles are violated and overlooked in many cases.
Motion Economy ( Gilberth )
Three Categories of Principles
1. Principles that apply to the use of the human body
2. Principles that apply to the workplace arrangement
3. Principles that apply to the design of tooling and equipment
Principles related to the use of the “Human Body”. These are:
(1) Both the hands should be used to do productive work.
(2) Both hands should start as well as complete their motions at the same time.
(3) Both hands should not be idle at the same time except during rest periods
(4) Use both hands simultaneously and use best motion sequence.
(5) Hand motions should be simple and confined to the lowest possible classification in
order to reduce fatigue.
These are listed in the order of giving least fatigue and maximum economy:
First--Finger motions.
Second--Finger and wrist motions.
Third--Finger, wrist and lower arm motions.
Fourth--Finger, wrist, lower arm and upper arm motions.
Fifth--Finger, wrist, lower arm, upper arm and body motions.
5) Utilize momentum to assist the worker, wherever possible.
(6) Smooth continuous motions produce less fatigue in comparison to zig zag or
straight line motions involving sudden and sharp change in direction
(7) Ballistic movements are faster, easier and more accurate than controlled
movements.
(8) Sequence of motions should be arranged to build rhythm and automaticity into the
operation.
For example, practically every body opens and closes his shirt buttons without
thinking, using definite recurring movements It is performed with positive rhythm
and automaticity.
(9) Hands should be relieved of all work that can be done by feet or other parts of the
body.
(1) All tools and materials should be placed at a definite and fixed place with easy reach.
(2) All tools, materials and actuating devices should be placed in front of the operator at a distance as near as possible.
(3) Provide gravity feed bins and use power or gravity conveyers to transport materials.
(4) Wherever possible use drop deliveries. Drop delivery means dropping the article into a chute or on a conveyor as near to the point of assembly as possible so that gravity assists rather than the hands to reach the part to its required place.
(5) Tools and material should be located in such a way as to achieve the best sequence of motions.
(6) Illuminate the work places properly for adequate seeing and visual perception.
B) Principles related to the arrangement of the work place
(7) Provide proper working tables, stools and chairs, etc., because to work in standing or sitting position on floor consumes more time and energy.
(8) The height of the work place and chair etc., should be such that worker can either sit or stand comfortably.
(9) Chairs provided should make good posture possible.
(10) Keep the shops in good order, neat and clean.
(C) Principles related to the design of Tools and Equipment
(1) The hands should not be used for work that can be done more advantageously with the help of devices. Therefore, following devices should be used to reduce manual work and to free both the hands as far as possible:
(a) use power operated tools and equipment:(b) use vices, jigs and fixtures, etc.;(c) use stops, guides etc.;(d) use foot pedals.
(2) Reduced noise increases the speed or work and requires less energy.
(3) Wherever practicable, tools and materials should be propositioned to reduce search, find and the select operations.
(4) Wherever possible two or more tools should be combined.
(5) Handles on tools and cranks should be designed to permit maximum contact with the hands, particularly where force is applied, such as in a screw driver, plier, scrapper etc.
(6) When each finger performs some specific movement, such as in type writing, the load should be distributed in accordance with the inherent capacities of the fingers.
(7) The location of levers, cross bars and hand wheels, etc. should be so decided that the operator can operate with the least change in body position and with greatest mechanical advantage.
charts and diagram
A chart is a pictorial representation of a situation or a graphical presentation of a sequence of operations.
A chart may be a diagram, a picture or a graph which gives an overall view of the situation, say a process.
Charts are generally represented by symbols because symbols produce a better picture and quick understanding of the facts.
Different charts and diagrams are
1.Process chart
2.Man machine chart
3.Simo chart
Diagrams
a) Flow diagram
b) String diagram
c) Cyclegraph
d) Cronocyclegraph
1. Process chart
charts
A chart representing a process may be called process chart
•The operation process chart shows the chronological sequence of all operations, inspections, time allowances, and materials used in a manufacturing or business process, from the arrival of raw material to the packaging of the finished product.
•The chart depicts the entrance of all components and subassemblies to the main assembly.
•Two symbols are used in constructing the operation process Chart : an operation and an inspection.
An operation
An inspection
a. Outline process chart ( operational process chart)
b. Flow process charti) man type ii) material type iii) Equipment type
c. Two handed process chart
1. Outline process chart ( operational process chart)
The Process chart are of three types
Example1
Example2 : Operation process chart
2. Flow process chart
A Flow Process Chart is a detailed version of outline process chart and it records all the events. :
(1) Sets out sequence of flow (of a procedure or product);
(2) Records all the events in sequence using process chart symbols;
(3) Marks distances travelled and time taken for completing an activity; and
(4) mentions other Important (or key) points if any
Types of Flow Process Chart
i) Man type flow process chart
ii) Material type flow process chart
iii) Equipment type flow process chart
i) Man type flow process chart
Man Type Flow Process Chart records the activities of an operator, i.e., what an operator does.
ii) Material type
Material Type Process Chart records what happens to the material, i. e., the changes the material undergoes in location or condition.
iii) Equipment type
Equipment Type Process Chart records the manner in which the equipment is used
Two handed process chart
A Two Handed Process Chart records the activities of the left hand and the right
hand (of operator) as related to each other.
The activities of the two hands can be synchronized by providing a time scale
on the chart.
Figure shows a two-handed process chart which is also known as operator
activity chart. Such a chart is generally used for repetitive works of short
duration.
Man machine chart ( Multiple activity chart)or multi skilling
Definition.
In many place where there are many workers in a group or one worker operating 2 or
many machines there will be idle time for workers or machine.
So to optimize the work distribution among workers and machines, and to detect and
reduce idle time multi skilling or multiple activity chart is to be developed.
A multiple activity chart records simultaneously the activities of all the workers and
machines on a common time scale and thus shows inter-relations between them.
Purpose.
To detect idle times being enforced on machines and workers,
To optimize work distribution between workers and machines,
To decide number of workers in a group,
To balance the work teams,
To examine the interdependency of activities, and
Ultimately, to develop an improved method of accomplishing a task and to have an effective labor cost control.
Construction.(i) A separate vertical bar or column is there to represent each subject (which may be a machine
or an operator).
(ii) A common time scale is provided for all the subjects.
(iii) Activities of each subject in relation to those of the others are marked in the respective column
(iv) Previously conducted time studies provide the time values for each activity.
(v) A brief description of each activity is marked on the chart.
(vi) Working and idle times are marked differently on the chart.
Analysis.
rearrange the work cycle to minimize men or machine idle times,
simplify the operations,
combine or eliminate some of the elements etc.
Applications.
plant repair and maintenance,
construction jobs, and
planning tem work.
Operator-Machine ChartsTool for showing activity of
both operator and machine along a time line
Also called “multiple activity chart”
Example:1 minute to load1 minute to unload6 minute run cycle0.5 minute to inspect and pack0.5 minute to travel to another
machine
Time Operator M10.5 U1 UNLOAD1 U1 UNLOAD
1.5 L1 LOAD2 L1 LOAD
2.5 I&P RUN3 RUN
3.5 RUN4 RUN
4.5 RUN5 RUN
5.5 IDLE RUN6 RUN
6.5 RUN7 RUN
7.5 RUN8 RUN
Cycle Time 8 minOper Idle 5.5 minMach. Idle 0 minProd. Rate 0.125 pc/min
ONE MACHINE
Operator Machine ChartsTime Operator M1 M2 Time Operator M1 M2 M2
0.5 U1 UNLOAD RUN 0.5 U1 UNLOAD RUN RUN1 U1 UNLOAD RUN 1 U1 UNLOAD RUN RUN
1.5 L1 LOAD RUN 1.5 L1 LOAD RUN RUN2 L1 LOAD RUN 2 L1 LOAD RUN RUN
2.5 I&P RUN RUN 2.5 I&P 1 RUN IDLE RUN3 T-2 RUN RUN 3 T-2 RUN IDLE RUN
3.5 U2 RUN UNLOAD 3.5 U2 RUN UNLOAD RUN4 U2 RUN UNLOAD 4 U2 RUN UNLOAD RUN
4.5 L2 RUN LOAD 4.5 L2 RUN LOAD RUN5 L2 RUN LOAD 5 L2 RUN LOAD RUN
5.5 I&P RUN RUN 5.5 I&P 2 RUN RUN IDLE6 T-1 RUN RUN 6 T-3 RUN RUN IDLE
6.5 RUN RUN 6.5 U3 RUN RUN UNLOAD7 RUN RUN 7 U3 RUN RUN UNLOAD
7.5 IDLE RUN RUN 7.5 L3 RUN RUN LOAD8 RUN RUN 8 L3 RUN RUN LOAD
8.5 I&P 3 IDLE RUN RUNCycle Time 8 min 9 T-3 IDLE RUN RUNOper. Idle 2 minMach Idle 0 min Cycle Time 9 minProd Rate 0.25 pc/min Oper. Idle 0 min
Mach Idle 1 minProd Rate 0.333333 pc/min
TWO MACHINES THREE MACHINES
3.SIMO ( Simultaneous- Motion – Cycle ) - Chart
“ It is an extremely detailed left and right hand operation chart. It shows on a common time scale the simultaneous minute movements ( Therbligs) performed by the two hands of operator. Besides hands, the movements of the other limbs of an operator may also be recorded. The time scale is represented in winks”
SIMO chart is generally used for micromotion analysis of
(a) short cycle repetitive jobs
(b) High order skill jobs
Applications in jobs like
-Assembly
-Packaging
-Repetitive use of jigs and fixtures
-Inspection etc..
Diagrams
1. Flow diagram
Flow diagram is a drawing or a diagramatic representation of all the events and activities
on a paper drawn to scale.
It shows the position of machinery, jigs, gangways, inspection room, stores etc and marks
the pathway followed by men and materials from one position to other.
This gives a clear picture of the entire work place and can be analyzed to cut down
unnecessary movements.
Steps for drawing the flow diagram.
(1) Draw to scale the plan of the work area.
(2) Mark the relative positions of machine tools, benches, store, racks, inspection booths, etc.
(3) From the different observations, draw the actual (path) movements of the material or the worker
on the diagram and indicate the direction of movement. Different movements can be marked in
different colours (for better understanding). Process symbols may also be added on to the diagram.
Figure shows a simple flow diagram, in which, raw material from the store moves to
station A where an operation is performed, the semi-finished product is sent to place B ,
where another operation factory is carried out, then it moves to place C for inspection, is
further sent to bench D where it halts for a short while and ultimately goes out of the
factory.
STRING DIAGRAM
When the paths are many and repetitive, a flow diagram becomes congested and it is neither easy to trace
it nor to understand. Under such conditions a string diagram is preferred.
String Diagram is a model or a scale plan of the shop, in which every machine or equipment is marked
and a peg or pin is struck by or in the area representing a facility. A continuous colored thread or string
traces the path taken up by the materials or workers while performing a particular operation.
Uses. Is very useful in dealing with complex movements and plant layout and
design problem,
Indicates clearly, back tracking, congestion, bottlenecks, and over and
under utilised paths on the shop floor,
Measures the distances involved and points out whether a work station is
suitably located,
Traces existing path of movements for necessary modifications if any,
Is preferred when movements are not regular as regards their frequency
and distance travelled,
Shows the pattern of movements and thus helps in deciding the most
economical routes to do a particular operation,
Cycle graph and Chrono cycle Graph Cycle graph: To study the path of movement of operators
hands;
A small electric bulb is attached to the finger, hand or other
part of the body of the operator and it is photographed to record
the path of the motion. With a still camera, the path of light so
photographed.
Chrono cycle graph: Graphic techniques for the study
of the motion path of an operator’s hand or finger.
Similar to cycle graph except that along with path it also shows
direction and speed of movement. This is done by interrupting
the light source so that path appears as a series of dots.
Time studyWhat is time study?
Time study is a work measurement technique for recording the times of performing a
certain specific job or its elements carried out under specified conditions, and for
analyzing the data so as to obtain the time necessary for an operator to carry it out at a
defined rate of performance.
Uses of Time Study1. Determining schedules and planning work.
2. Determining standard costs and as an aid in preparing budgets.
3. Estimating the cost of a product before manufacturing it.
4. Determining machine effectiveness, the number of machines which one person can operate.
5. Determining time standards to be used as a basis for the payment of a wage incentive to direct labor and indirect labor.
6. Determining time standards to be used as a basis for labor cost control.
Making the Time Study
Secure and record information about the operation and
operator being studied.
Divide the operation into elements and record a complete
description of the method.
Observe and record the time taken by the operator.
Determine the number of cycles to be timed.
Rate the operator’s performance.
Check to make certain that a sufficient number of cycles have
been timed.
Determine the allowances.
Determine the time standard for the operation.
Time study equipment
A stop-watch
A study board
time study forms
Stopwatch Time Study
Stopwatch time study is the most common technique for setting time standards in the manufacturing area.
The time standard is the most important piece of manufacturing information, and stopwatch time study is often the only method acceptable to both management and labor.
Stopwatch time study was developed by Frederick W. Taylor in 1880 and was the first technique used to set engineered time standards.
The study board The study board is simply a flat board, usually of plywood or of
suitable plastic sheet, needed for placing the time study forms.
Time study boards change from cheap clipboards to multi watch
digital boards, and they have one goal—to hold equipment for
ease of use. If a simple clipboard is used, the watch must be held
in the same hand.
Continuous and snapback time study boards will have one watch
holder and a clip for paperwork. The watch holder is reversible
for left-handed technicians.
Three-watch boards are designed to hold the three watches and
a common handle for depressing all three crowns at the same
time. Digital boards usually have the watches built in.
Time study forms
Taking a time study requires the recording of substantial amounts of data. These data
are in a regular form consisting of element codes or descriptions, ratings and element
durations.
It is more convenient to use pre-printed forms which ensure that each study is of the
same consistent format, that all relevant data are recorded more reliably.
There are numerous designs of forms; most work study practitioners have their own
ideas on the ideal layout.
The principal forms used in time study fall into two groups:
Those used at the point of observation while actually making the study, and those
which are used after the study, as part of the analysis process, in the study office.
What is job evaluation?
Job evaluation is a systematic process of evaluating different jobs of an organization.
Depending upon the characteristics and requirements of a job, job evaluation determines
its relative worth and attaches a value to it.
These relative values of jobs assist in deciding wage rates and salaries for different jobs.
Objectives Job evaluation,
(a) Decides the relative values of different jobs in an organisation;
(b) helps to formulate an appropriate and uniform wage structure.
(c) clarifies the responsibility and authority connected with each job;
(d) provides a basis for recruitment, selection, training, promotion and transfer of the employees;
(e) improves employer-employee relationships;
(f) adds to job satisfaction;
(g) Minimises labour turnover; and
(h) describes and evaluates new jobs.
Procedure
(1)Identify the job to be evaluated.
(2) Describe and analyse the requirements of the job. Write down the skill statement and the
responsibilities involved.
(3) Compare the job with the pre-identified key jobs and decide its level or value (with respect
to key jobs).
(4) Use the information supplied by (3) above to arrive at a suitable wage structure for the job.
Methods
The various commonly used methods or systems of Job Evaluation are;
(i)Ranking method,
(ii) Classification method,
iii) Factor comparison method, and
(iv) Point method
(I) Ranking method.
The different jobs, depending upon their requirements, responsibilities involved
and their importance to the organization, are ranked, graded or placed from top to
bottom.
Advantages
(a) The method is simple and fast.
(b) It can be easily mastered and administered.
(c) The method is suitable for small organizations involving lesser number of jobs to
be evaluated,
(d) The method does not involve expenses.
Disadvantages
(a) There is no commonly accepted base for deciding the ranks.
(b) The method is not very accurate.
(c) It is not useful for large organizations.
(ii) Classification or Grading Method. Jobs are classified or graded in groups or levels of equal skill, difficulty, responsibility, Importance and other requirements. It may be a production job, a sales job or an office job; each job family can be broken into a number of grades. For example, office jobs may be classified into six grades, namely grade A to grade F. Grade A involves simple tasks like sorting whereas grade F deals with those tasks which require high responsibility and judgment. Each grade carries an appropriate monetary scale.
Advantages
(1)The method resembles Ranking method, is simple and can be easily mastered and
administered.
(2) It is more accurate as compared to Ranking method. Disadvantages
(1)It is not useful for large organizations.
(2) Job classification process is cumbersome and time consuming
(3) The method does not involve detailed Job Analysis.
(4) Sometimes it is difficult to correlate the (classified) grade of the job with the
present salary of the worker; he may be getting a wage higher than the one specified in
the recently determined grade for him.
(iii) Factor Comparison Method.
The method employs a five factor scale for analysis, comparing and evaluating different jobs. The five factors are SkilI Mental Effort, Physical Effort, Responsibility and Working Conditions.
Advantages1. This methods finds the wages for a job from existing wage rate.2. It find wages by direct comparison.3. For fixing wages for a new job, this method uses a ready made Job Comparison (monetary)
scale and thus the wages can be calculated speedily.
Disadvantages
1. It is a complicated method; is not easily understood and hence it is less popular as compared to Point
method.
2. Selection of unfairly paid jobs as key jobs can introduce considerable error in the wages calculated by
this method.
3. It is difficult to divide each factor into a large number of sub-factors and unless done so, accurate
results may not be achieved.
4. The method depends upon subjective judgment; different persons may attach different monetary
values with each factor for the same importance
(iv) Point Method. The point method bases itself on dividing the jobs into a number of factors which in turn are further subdivided into grades or degrees. Each degree is awarded certain points and when such points for all the degrees are totalled they indicate the importance of the job in the organisation; consequently a suitable wage rate proportional to the total points is determined.
Advantages(1) Since the method involves points (i.e., numerical figures),
(2) it is considered to be more accurate and reliable,
(2) It is more precise than any other method of job evaluations.
(3 Once Gade Table has been constructed, the chances of subjective discretion decrease.
(4) The method can be understood without much difficulty.
(5) It is the most widely (about 80%) used method of job evaluation.
Limitations
(1) Analysis of factors and grades involves a large amount of work and experience.(2) Points allocated to each factor base on more or less arbitrary grounds.
Diagrams 1. Flow diagram
Flow diagram is a drawing or a diagramatic representation of all the events and
activities on a paper drawn to scale.
It shows the position of machinery, jigs, gangways, inspection room, stores etc and
marks the pathway followed by men and materials from one position to other.
This gives a clear picture of the entire work place and can be analyzed to cut down
unnecessary movements.
Steps for drawing the flow diagram.
(1) Draw to scale the plan of the work area.
(2) Mark the relative positions of machine tools, benches, store, racks, inspection booths, etc.
(3) From the different observations, draw the actual (path) movements of the material or the worker
on the diagram and indicate the direction of movement. Different movements can be marked in
different colours (for better understanding). Process symbols may also be added on to the diagram.
Figure shows a simple flow diagram, in which, raw material from the store moves to
station A where an operation is performed, the semi-finished product is sent to place B ,
where another operation factory is carried out, then it moves to place C for inspection, is
further sent to bench D where it halts for a short while and ultimately goes out of the
factory.
STRING DIAGRAM
When the paths are many and repetitive, a flow diagram becomes congested and it is neither easy to trace
it nor to understand. Under such conditions a string diagram is preferred.
String Diagram is a model or a scale plan of the shop, in which every machine or equipment is marked
and a peg or pin is struck by or in the area representing a facility. A continuous colored thread or string
traces the path taken up by the materials or workers while performing a particular operation.
Uses. Is very useful in dealing with complex movements and plant layout and
design problem,
Indicates clearly, back tracking, congestion, bottlenecks, and over and
under utilized paths on the shop floor,
Measures the distances involved and points out whether a work station is
suitably located,
Traces existing path of movements for necessary modifications if any,
Is preferred when movements are not regular as regards their frequency
and distance travelled,
Shows the pattern of movements and thus helps in deciding the most
economical routes to do a particular operation,
Cycle graph and Chrono cycle Graph Cycle graph: To study the path of movement of operators
hands;
A small electric bulb is attached to the finger, hand or other
part of the body of the operator and it is photographed to record
the path of the motion. With a still camera, the path of light so
photographed.
Chrono cycle graph: Graphic techniques for the study
of the motion path of an operator’s hand or finger.
Similar to cycle graph except that along with path it also shows
direction and speed of movement. This is done by interrupting
the light source so that path appears as a series of dots.
Directed cycle graphCycle Graphs
Time studyWhat is time study?
Time study is a work measurement technique for recording the times of performing a
certain specific job or its elements carried out under specified conditions, and for
analyzing the data so as to obtain the time necessary for an operator to carry it out at a
defined rate of performance.
Uses of Time Study1. Determining schedules and planning work.
2. Determining standard costs and as an aid in preparing budgets.
3. Estimating the cost of a product before manufacturing it.
4. Determining machine effectiveness, the number of machines which one person can operate.
5. Determining time standards to be used as a basis for the payment of a wage incentive to direct labor and indirect labor.
6. Determining time standards to be used as a basis for labor cost control.
Making the Time Study
Secure and record information about the operation and operator
being studied.
Divide the operation into elements and record a complete
description of the method.
Observe and record the time taken by the operator.
Determine the number of cycles to be timed.
Rate the operator’s performance.
Check to make certain that a sufficient number of cycles have
been timed.
Determine the allowances.
Determine the time standard for the operation.
Time study equipment
A stop-watch
A study board
time study forms
Stopwatch Time Study
Stopwatch time study is the most common technique for setting time standards in the manufacturing area.
The time standard is the most important piece of manufacturing information, and stopwatch time study is often the only method acceptable to both management and labor.
Stopwatch time study was developed by Frederick W. Taylor in 1880 and was the first technique used to set engineered time standards.
The study board The study board is simply a flat board, usually of plywood or of
suitable plastic sheet, needed for placing the time study forms.
Time study boards change from cheap clipboards to multi watch
digital boards, and they have one goal—to hold equipment for
ease of use. If a simple clipboard is used, the watch must be held
in the same hand.
Continuous and snapback time study boards will have one watch
holder and a clip for paperwork. The watch holder is reversible
for left-handed technicians.
Three-watch boards are designed to hold the three watches and
a common handle for depressing all three crowns at the same
time. Digital boards usually have the watches built in.
Time study forms
Taking a time study requires the recording of substantial amounts of data. These data
are in a regular form consisting of element codes or descriptions, ratings and element
durations.
It is more convenient to use pre-printed forms which ensure that each study is of the
same consistent format, that all relevant data are recorded more reliably.
There are numerous designs of forms; most work study practitioners have their own
ideas on the ideal layout.
The principal forms used in time study fall into two groups:
Those used at the point of observation while actually making the study, and those
which are used after the study, as part of the analysis process, in the study office.
What is job evaluation?
Job evaluation is a systematic process of evaluating different jobs of an organization.
Depending upon the characteristics and requirements of a job, job evaluation determines
its relative worth and attaches a value to it.
These relative values of jobs assist in deciding wage rates and salaries for different jobs.
Objectives Job evaluation,
(a) Decides the relative values of different jobs in an organisation;
(b) helps to formulate an appropriate and uniform wage structure.
(c) clarifies the responsibility and authority connected with each job;
(d) provides a basis for recruitment, selection, training, promotion and transfer of the employees;
(e) improves employer-employee relationships;
(f) adds to job satisfaction;
(g) Minimises labour turnover; and
(h) describes and evaluates new jobs.
Procedure
(1)Identify the job to be evaluated.
(2) Describe and analyse the requirements of the job. Write down the skill statement and the
responsibilities involved.
(3) Compare the job with the pre-identified key jobs and decide its level or value (with respect
to key jobs).
(4) Use the information supplied by (3) above to arrive at a suitable wage structure for the job.
Methods
The various commonly used methods or systems of Job Evaluation are;
(i)Ranking method,
(ii) Classification method,
iii) Factor comparison method, and
(iv) Point method
(I) Ranking method.
The different jobs, depending upon their requirements, responsibilities involved
and their importance to the organization, are ranked, graded or placed from top to
bottom.
Advantages
(a) The method is simple and fast.
(b) It can be easily mastered and administered.
(c) The method is suitable for small organizations involving lesser number of jobs to
be evaluated,
(d) The method does not involve expenses.
Disadvantages
(a) There is no commonly accepted base for deciding the ranks.
(b) The method is not very accurate.
(c) It is not useful for large organizations.
(ii) Classification or Grading Method. Jobs are classified or graded in groups or levels of equal skill, difficulty, responsibility, Importance and other requirements. It may be a production job, a sales job or an office job; each job family can be broken into a number of grades. For example, office jobs may be classified into six grades, namely grade A to grade F. Grade A involves simple tasks like sorting whereas grade F deals with those tasks which require high responsibility and judgment. Each grade carries an appropriate monetary scale.
Advantages
(1)The method resembles Ranking method, is simple and can be easily mastered and
administered.
(2) It is more accurate as compared to Ranking method. Disadvantages
(1)It is not useful for large organizations.
(2) Job classification process is cumbersome and time consuming
(3) The method does not involve detailed Job Analysis.
(4) Sometimes it is difficult to correlate the (classified) grade of the job with the present salary of
the worker; he may be getting a wage higher than the one specified in the recently determined
grade for him.
(iii) Factor Comparison Method.
The method employs a five factor scale for analysis, comparing and evaluating different jobs. The five factors are Skill Mental Effort, Physical Effort, Responsibility and Working Conditions.
Advantages1. This methods finds the wages for a job from existing wage rate.2. It find wages by direct comparison.3. For fixing wages for a new job, this method uses a ready made Job Comparison
(monetary) scale and thus the wages can be calculated speedily.
Disadvantages
1. It is a complicated method; is not easily understood and hence it is less popular as compared to Point
method.
2. It is difficult to divide each factor into a large number of sub-factors and unless done so, accurate
results may not be achieved.
3. The method depends upon subjective judgment; different persons may attach different monetary
values with each factor for the same importance
(iv) Point Method. The point method bases itself on dividing the jobs into a number of factors which in turn are further subdivided into grades or degrees. Each degree is awarded certain points and when such points for all the degrees are totalled they indicate the importance of the job in the organization; consequently a suitable wage rate proportional to the total points is determined.
Advantages(1) Since the method involves points (i.e., numerical figures),
(2) it is considered to be more accurate and reliable,
(2) It is more precise than any other method of job evaluations.
(3) The method can be understood without much difficulty.
(4) It is the most widely (about 80%) used method of job evaluation.
Limitations
(1) Analysis of factors and grades involves a large amount of work and experience.
(2) Points allocated to each factor base on more or less arbitrary grounds.
WAGE PAYMENTS AND PLANS
Wages may be defined as the payment made by the
employer for the effort put in or services rendered by a
worker or payment for the use of labour.
Wages are generally given on hourly basis and it can be
either in cash or in goods.
Wage payment
FAIR WAGE: is a wage paid to the worker which is fair as
regards the work carried by him and also sufficient to fulfill his
basic necessities of life.
TIME WAGE: are the wages paid on the basis of time i.e.,
yearly, monthly, weekly, daily etc. it is also called as salary.
REAL WAGES: are the wages given to employees which has
the buying power for the amount of goods and services essential
for his livelihood.
Wage payment plan types
Wage payment plans can be broadly classified into
Non-Incentive plans
Incentive wage plans
Incentive wage plansThis is a reward given to the worker for his hard work, in
addition to the wages paid.
This is to motivate and encourage workers to produce more and
better.
Deductions for damage or loss
Types of incentive scheme Piece rate Piece rate Profit sharing Profit sharing Profit-related payProfit-related payShare-related payShare-related payPerformance-related pay Performance-related pay
Types of incentive scheme
Each unit produced over the Each unit produced over the
target is rewarded with a target is rewarded with a
bonus or commission bonus or commission
payment.payment.
Piece rate scheme Piece rate scheme
Types of incentive schemeProfits are shared Profits are shared
equally or as agreed equally or as agreed
by partners. by partners.
Piece rate Piece rate
Profit-sharing Profit-sharing
Employees are paid a
bonus as a
percentage of the
profit amount made
by a company.
Piece rate
Profit-sharing
Profit-related pay
© PhotoDisc
Types of incentive scheme
Employees are offered
some shares or the
possibility of
purchasing some
shares as an incentive
Piece rate
Profit sharing
Profit-related pay
Share-ownership
© PhotoDisc
Types of incentive scheme
Types of incentive schemeEmployees’ annual salary is
linked to their performance in
the job. The size of payment is
determined by the achievement
of the set target.
Piece rate
© PhotoDisc
Profit sharing
Profit-related pay
Share-ownership
Performance-related payPerformance-related pay
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
112
Why Training?
The sharing of information through training is
our most valuable tool to develop our most
valuable asset…our employees.
113
Once employees have proper “tools” in their toolbox
They will come to work on a daily basis, with
enthusiasm and the positive attitude to give a full
days work for a full days pay.
114
TRAININGS SHOULD AIM ATEmpowering the employees Increasing productivityMaking the processes more efficient and
effective so as to ensure ultimate Customer satisfactionImprove the overall Performance of the
organisation.
115
1. Respond to technology changes affecting job requirements.
2. Respond to organizational restructuring.
3. Adapt to increased diversity of the workforce.
4. Support career development.
5. Fulfill employee need for growth.
Importance of Training – contd…
116
Importance of Training and development
Maintain skill levels
Advance skill and knowledge to improve
Performance (efficiency)d
Service delivery (error rate)
Profitability (productivity, manpower)
Integrate new technologies into work
Establish standards for work practices
117
The Benefits of Training
Gives the supervisor more time to manage,
standardized performance, less absenteeism, less
turnover, reduced tension, consistency, lower costs,
more customers, better service.
Gives the workers confidence to do their jobs,
reduces tension, boost morale and job satisfaction,
reduces injuries and accidents, gives them a chance
to advance.
Gives the business a good image and more profit.
118
Benefits of Training-a summaryImproved customer service and public
relations
Fewer complaints
Better morale and attitudes
Less turnover and absenteeism
More involved and caring employees
Proactive vs. reactive employees
119
MANAGEMENT’s ONE OF THE
MOST IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS IS
TO TRAIN PEOPLE FOR THEIR
JOBS.
120
3. Types of Training
1. Skills Training.2. Retraining.3. Cross-
Functional. 4. Team Training.
5. Creativity Training.
6. Literacy Training.7. Diversity
Training.8. Customer
Service.
Types of Training
121
1. SKILLS TRAINING
Focus on job knowledge and skill for:
Instructing new hires.
Overcoming performance deficits of the
workforce.
122
2. Retraining
Maintaining worker knowledge and skill as job requirements change due to:
Technological innovationOrganizational restructuring
123
3. Cross-Functional Training
Training employees to perform a wider variety of tasks in order to gain:
Flexibility in work scheduling.Improved coordination.
124
4. Team Training
Training self-directed teams with regard to:
Management skills.Coordination skills.Cross-functional skills.
125
5. Creativity Training
Using innovative learning techniques to enhance employee
ability to spawn new ideas and new approaches.
126
6. Literacy Training
Improving basic skills of the workforce such
as mathematics, reading, writing, and
effective employee behaviors such as
punctuality, responsibility, cooperation,etc.
127
7. Diversity Training
Instituting a variety of programs to instill
awareness, tolerance, respect, and acceptance of
persons of different race, gender, etc. and different
backgrounds.
128
8. Customer Service Training
Training to improve communication, better
response to customer needs, and ways to
enhance customer satisfaction.
129
Training Methods
Classroom Video
On-the-Job
Computer AssistedInstruction
Simulation
