Chapter 11

Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase

From Kingdom to Republic

The Etruscans and Rome

• Legend: City’s existence owed to flight of Aeneas

• Migrated from Troy

• The Aeneid by Virgil

• Indo-Europeans arrive 2000 B.C.E. – blend

• Bronze arrives c. 1800, Iron c. 900

Romulus and Remus

• Twin descendants of Aeneas

• Abandoned by evil uncle along Tiber River

• Nursed by wolf and grow strong

• 753 B.C.E. – Romulus founds Rome – becomes king

The Etruscans

• from Anatolia

• Colonized Roman regions

• Thriving cities, economic alliances (bronze, iron)

• Society declines late 6th c. BCE• Greek maritime attacks• Celtic invasions from

north (Gaul)

The Kingdom of Rome

• Monarchy through 7th-6th c. BCE

• Geographic advantage – along Tiber, not on coast

• Streets, temples, public buildings

• Major center of trade routes

• Benefits from decline of Etruscans

The Roman Republic and Its Constitution

• 509 B.C.E. – Romans overthrow last Etruscan king

• Replaced with Aristocratic republic

Establishment of the Republic

• Roman Forum

• Republican constitution

• Executive: 2 consuls with civil and military powers

• Consuls elected by assembly of aristocrats (hereditary)

• Senate – advised consuls and ratified decisions

Conflicts Between Patricians and Plebeians

• Patricians (aristocrats)

• Plebeians (commoners)

• Plebeians allowed to elect tribunes for representation

• Rights expanded through 3rd c. BCE

• 6-month appointments of dictators in emergencies

Expansion of the Republic

• Dominated Etruscans

• Took over iron industry 5th-4th c. BCE

• Expansion via military threat and incentives• Tax exemptions• Trade privileges• Citizenship• Restricted alliances• Required military

service

Roman Republic 146 B.C.E.

Expansion in the Mediterranean

• Carthage main competitor

• Antigonids, Ptolemies, Seleucids

• Hellenistic prosperity supported growing trade network

The Punic Wars

• Conflict with Carthage, 264-164 BCE

• 3 wars over Sicilian grain supply

• Rome gains control of Carthaginian lands

• Rome dominates Mediterranean by middle of 2nd C. BCE

From Republic to Empire

Imperial Expansion and Domestic Problems

• Land distribution• Perennial

problem• Development of

large latifundia• Unfair

competition for smaller landholders

The Gracchi Brothers

• Tiberius and Gaius

• Attempted to limit land holdings of aristocrats

• Assassinated

• Development of private armies made up of landless peasants• Gaius Marius (with

reformers)• Lucius Cornelius Sulla

(with aristocrats)

Civil War

• 87 BCE Gaius Marius takes Rome

• Lucius Cornelius Sulla drives Marius out 83 BCE

• Reign of terror follows – encourages Romans to kill “enemies” of the state

• Sulla imposed conservative programs – weakened influence of lower classes

The Foundation of Empire

• Rome still plagued with class conflict

• Poor flooded cities, joined private militaries

• Julius Caesar become a popular leader in favor of social reform

• Led the process from republic to imperial rule

Julius Caesar

• Nephew of Marius

• Escapes Sulla’s terror• Relatively young, well-

timed trip abroad

• Attacks Rome 49 BCE

• Names self Dictator for life in 46 BCE

• Centralized rule, confiscated land from conservatives

• Assassinated in 44 B.C.E.

Augustus

• Civil conflict follows death of Caesar

• Nephew Octavian fights Mark Antony & Cleopatra

• Takes title Augustus 27 BCE

• Ruled for 45 years

Augustus’s Administration

• Monarchy disguised as a republic

• Kept republican form of government

• Increasing centralization of political, military power

• Stablilized empire

• Death in 14 CE

Continuing Expansion and Integration of the Empire

• Roman occupation of increasingly remote areas• Gaul, Germany, Britain,

Spain

• Integrate into economy and society

• Coordination of crop production, transport of natural resources

• Allied with local rulers

• Developed infrastructure, cities emerge (Paris, Lyons, London, Cologne, Segovia)

Roman Empire - 117 C.E.

The Pax Romana

• Roman Peace

• 27-250 CE

• Facilitated trade, communication

Roman Roads

• Roads linked the territories, supported trade and communication

• Curbs, drainage, milestones

• Postal service

Roman Law

• Twelve Tables, c. 450 BCE

• Adapted to diverse populations under Roman Rule

• Laws integrated larger society

• Innocent until proven guilty

• Right to challenge accusers in court

Economy and Society in the Roman Mediterranean

Trade and Urbanization

• Focus on Mediterranean

• Growing economy brings social change

• State brings more regions into control

• Agriculture – foundation of economy

Commercial Agriculture

• Latifundia: production for export

• Regional specialization increases – better use of land

• Integration of Empire-wide economy• Spain- olive oil, wine, horses,

metals

• Palestine and Syria – fruits, nuts, wool

• Italy – pottery, glassware, bronze

• Greece – olives, vines

• Gaul – grain, copper

Mediterranean Trade

• Vigorous trade

• Sea lanes linked ports from Syria and Palestine to Spain and North Africa

• Roman navy kept sea free of pirates – cargo safer and larger

• “mare nostrum” – our sea

The City of Rome

• Cities promoted economic and social change

• Cash flowed to Rome• Taxes, tribute, spoils,

commerce

• Massive construction projects• Statuary, monumental

architecture, aqueducts

• Technology: concrete

Roman Cities

• Cities built at strategic points

• Imported goods, luxury items

• Underground sewage

• Circus Maximus• 250,000 spectators

• Colosseum

• Gladitorial Games

Family and Society

• Roman family consisted of entire household• Slaves• Free

Servants• Close

relatives

The Pater Familias

• Pater Familias: “father of the family”• Right to arrange

marriages, sell children into slavery, determine work, punish as see fit

• Women not allowed to inherit property• Rarely enforced• Supervised household

Wealth and Social Change

• Newly rich challenge aristocracy

• Poor class increased in size

• Often rioted to improve conditions

• Distraction: “Bread and Circuses”

Slavery

• 2nd c. CE: estimated at 1/3 of Empire population• Customary manumission at

age 30

• Agricultural work, quarries, mines

• Chain labor

• Revolt under Spartacus, 73 BCE – 70,000 slaves

• Educated slaves - Epictetus

The Cosmopolitan Mediterranean

Greek Philosophy and Religions of Salvation

• As people moved throughout the Mediterranean world, they carried their religious beliefs

• Roads and communications spread popular religions

Roman Deities

• Polytheistic

• Major gods – Jupiter, Mars, Ceres (grain)

• Tutelary deities

• Absorption of gods from other cultures

Greek Influence

• Influenced Roman philosophy and use of reasonable thought

• Stoics – sought universal moral standards

Cicero and Stoicism

• Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-46 BCE)

• Major orator, writer

• Influenced by Greek thought

• Proponent of Stoicism

• Emphasized duty to live in accordance with nature and reason

• Pursuit of justice as highest duty

Religions of Salvation

• Masses found comfort in religions of salvation

• Provided a sense of purpose

• Spread during Hellenistic times

• Brought to Rome by migrants

• Roads served as highways for religions of salvation

Mithraism

• From Zoroastrian myth: god of Sun, light

• Roman version emphasizes strength, courage, discipline

• Women not admitted into cult

• Appealed to military

Cult of Isis

• Open to men and women

• Most popular religions of salvation before Christianity

• Used to cope with stresses of cosmopolitan life

Judaism and Early Christianity

• 10th century BCE – Jewish Kingdoms of David and Solomon dissolve

• Jewish faith maintained by followers under foreign rulers

• Jews did not want to participate in worshipping of deities

The Jews and the Empire

• Jewish monotheism at odds with most ancient cultures

• Refusal to recognize state gods

• Tension grows as Rome expands into Southwest Asia

• Repeated Jewish rebellions in Palestine

• Romans finally crush Jewish self-governance in Jewish Wars (66-70 CE)

The Essenes

• Messianic Jewish Cult

• 1st century BCE

• Strict moral codes

• Baptism – ritual

• look for savior to free from Roman rule

• Ascetic lifestyle

• Dead Sea Scrolls

Jesus of Nazareth

• Jewish teacher

• Born about 4 BCE

• Moral code, reputation for miracle-working

• “kingdom of God is at hand”

• Romans fear instigation of rebellion, crucify Jesus in early 30s CE

• Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum

Jesus’ Early Followers

• Belief in Jesus’ resurrection, divine nature (later)

• Title Christ: “Anointed One”

• Teachings recorded in New Testament

• Over time, teach he is son of God

Paul of Tarsus

• Jewish followers – some want to gain converts

• Extends teachings far beyond Jewish circles

• Jew from Anatolia

• Intensive travel, missionary activity

Early Christian Communities

• Local leaders: Bishops

• Regional variation in doctrine and ritual• Nature of

resurrection• Role of women

• Gradual acceptance of core texts

The Growth of Early Christianity

Summary

• Under Romans, Mediterranean peoples become tightly integrated

• Roman Empire – Administration over vast lands

• Specialized agriculture and industrial production

• Spread of popular religions, Philosophy