CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION

An examination of ancient Indian works on Aesthetics

demonstrates the absence of a philosophical system, which has eclipsed

the eminence of their aesthetic theories and assumptions. Later on, a

majority of works on aesthetics have been made on the basis of Advaita­

Vedanta and Kashmir Saivism. Their approach on Rasa is entirely

different in accordance with their philosophical differences. They have

tried their best to interpret the theory of Rasa on account of their

respective philosophical perspectives, attitudes and particularly in their

own philosophical terms. They have also tried to apply their own

philosophical concepts on their interpretations of the functioning of Rasa

and its experience. There are considerable differences between Advaita­

Vedanta and Kashmir Saivism on account of the cardinal principles of

their own philosophies. In the case of the cardinal philosophical

principles like the Absolute, the lsvara, the Maya, the world, the means

and the mode of realization, etc. Advaita Vedanta and Kashmir Saivism

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differ considerably. As much so, their concepts regarding Rasa

experience and the mode of attaining the aesthetic experience and the

nature of ultimate aesthetic experience are entirely different. A close

scrutiny of the different terms and concepts used in Na.tyasastra

particularly in the Rasasfitra ofBharata leads us to the conclusion that the

terms and concepts of Advaita Vedanta are quite impertinent to explain

those philosophical concepts and terms. It is to be noted that some of the

theoreticians who came after Abhinavagupta wrote exegeses-explaining

Rasa. Most important of them are Mamma.ta bha.(ta, Visvanatha,

JagannathapalJ4ita and others who applied Advaita Vedanta to illuminate

the theory ofRasa.

In Advaita Vedanta the Absolute, Brahman is inactive and when

Brahman is associated with Avidya it forms lsvara or SagulJabrahman

which alone is endowed with the power of acting. But in Kashmir­

Saivism the Absolute is Supreme Lord Paramasiva who can be

transcendent and immanent at a time. Jiiatrtva and Kartrtva constitute the

nature of this Supreme Brahman Paramasiva. This Brahman has powers

of His own through which he comes into the immanent state where all the

worldly manifestation emerge from him.

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The passive nature of the Nirguf)a Brahman of Advaita Vediinta

and the negative approach towards worldly objects are not adequate

features to explain the aesthetic experience as is delinated in Nii_tyasiistra.

Bharata 's approach towards the worldly objects is thoroughly a realistic

one. Since the world and its objects are in essence the Absolute itself in

Kashmir Saivism, its approach towards them is positive and therefore the

reality of world objects is accepted with regard to the fundamental

experience of Rasa. Advaita Vedanta, on the other hand, rejects the

reality of worldly objects and its main argument is that the world and its

objects are utterly unreal and therefore, mere illusion.

The Absolute in Advaita Vedanta is merely self-shining, on the

other hand in Kashmir Saivism it is self-shining and at the same time

self-conscious or self-knowing. In the field of aesthetics Rasa has the

capacity of self-revelation like Prakiisa. The Sthiiyin is static and latent

and it will be dynamic when it is related to the Vibhiiva, Anubhiiva and

Vyabhiciirin. When Sthiiyin becomes patent and dynamic it is called

Rasa. Therefore Rasa experience is not only self-conscious but also self­

shining.

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Though the Absolute in Advaita Vedanta and Kashmir Saivism is

pure knowledge, the nature of the Absolute is different in both these

systems. Sankaracarya 's concept of Knowledge is Pure Idea without

any activity of knowing and without any agentship. Whereas in Kashmir

Saivism, Absolute Knowledge is Pure Idea which is dynamic and is

associated with the activity of knowing itself. The Rasa as Pure

Knowledge having the power of self-knowing activity of dynamism is

quite akin to the Absolute concept of Pratyabhijna philosophy. Here the

activity of knowing is not an adjunct of Rasa but a specific nature of

Rasa.

Advaita Vedantins emphasize that 'Sat' is the only entity which is

pure existence extremely subtle, attributeless and Pure Knowledge. In

Kashmir Saivism the term 'Sat' is not only used in the sense of the static

nature of Absolute but also in the sense of being as the nature of

Brahman. Abhinavagupta holds that all the wordly objects consists of

Rasa. It asserts the view of Pratyabhijna that all the wordly objects are

not other than being in essence. Unlike Advaita Vedanta, Pratyabhijna

philosophy accepts all things in the world as being in essence. Therefore,

the Pratyabhijna alone can explain the aesthetic experience.

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In Advaita Vedanta, Cit is the Absolute and Cittam (mind) is the

by-product of inert, Avidya. In Kashmir Saivism just as in Advaita­

Vediinta the 'Cit' 'is the Absolute consciousness whereas the Cittam

(mind) is made up of Cit or Caitanya itself. The aphorism 'Citi

Sampadyamiine ' constitutes the very being of the mind which is pure

consciousness itself. Since the mind is the locus of luminous aesthetic

experience, it cannot be an inert one according to Pratyabh(jnii Darsana.

It should always be self-luminous (Caitanya) for experiencing such a

luminous ultimate reality of bliss namely, the Rasa.

In Pratyabhijfzii philosophy, the Turfya Consciousness in the form

of Sviitantryasakti is full of creative bliss. It is related to the aspects of

creation, maintenance and re-absorption of the universe. But in Advaita­

Vediinta 'Cit or Turf ya' is non-relational consciousness which cannot be

related with the cosmos. Therefore the Turfya Consciousness m

Pratyabhijnii philosophy is equated to the talented consc10usness or

artistic creation of an artist.

Advaita Vediintins argue that the world exists due to the illusive

functioning of an illusionary power called Miiyiisakti which is entirely

distinct from Brahman. Trika holds that Miiyiisakti is essentially the

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power of the Absolute and it is Divine and spiritual. Therefore the

universe is the expansion of the conscious power of Paramasiva. But

Sankaracarya' s Mayavada ultimately rejects the world and its objects,

thereby, it cannot give an ultimate value to the art objects. They consider

that all creative processes including art objects are relegated ultimately to

the status of Maya. Therefore, if we follow the Advaita Vedanta

philosophy to explain aesthetic experience, this experience should

become spatio-temporal because it always happens in the realm of

Maya.

Sankaracarya 's Maya is inert or non-consciousness and the world

as its products is of the nature of inexplicable or anirvacanzya, which is

neither real nor unreal. Therefore, Panc;litajagannatha, the follower of

Advaita Vedanta, places Rasa in the realm of Maya and it is attributed as

anirvacanrya. Advaita Vedantins consider that every Ananda is the Amsa

of Brahmananda, but those anandas are only in the empirical level.

Therefore, the followers of this system consider Rasasvada as similar to

Brahmananda. To them the enjoyment of literary creation, which gives

aesthetic delight, is of secondary importance.

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In Kashmir Saivism, Miiyi"zsakti represents the energy of the

Absolute. The all powerful Parama,fiva becomes limited manifestations

of individual subjects and objects through the power of Miiyii. Therefore,

Saivites accept the world objects as the manifestation of Paramasiva

through his own Sakti and accept all the appearances as manifestations

of the one the Absolute Self-Consciousness. Therefore they emphatically

argue that Rasa is Brahman, and the world is embedded with Rasa:

'Rasamayam visvam' which mean that the world is made up of the very

stuff of Brahman Consciousness : 'Brahmamayam visvam.'

The ultimate stage of Advaita Vedanta is the Nirvikalpaka Samiidhi

which would stop at this stage because this is the Ultimate Reality and

there is nothing beyond it. But Kashmir Saivism accepts single reality

with two poses- the static pose of Siva and the dynamic pose of Sakti

which operate inseparably at all levels of experience. In other words

Paramasiva, the manifestor as well as manifested of this universe, is the

unlimited, undivided Absolute Reality, which is bound by time and space.

It is the Svabhiiva or very nature of ultimate Reality to manifest itself as

the universe.

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Aesthetic experience has two steps or aspects in the total realization

of Rasa. The first step is Tanmayzbhiiva or total identification of the

Rasika with the work of art. This stage corresponds to the Parasamvit of

Kashmir Saivism or the Nirvikalpaka Samiidhi of Advaita Vedanta. The

second stage of aesthetic experience is Siik$iifkiirasvabhiivah, which can

be identified with the dynamic pose of Paramasiva. This explanation of

aesthetic experience can be justified only by the help of Pratyabhijnii

Philosophy, which accepts single reality with two poses. But Advaita­

Vedanta would stop at the first stage of experience because this is the

ultimate reality of it and there is nothing beyond it. JaganniithaPanq.ita

also divides Ras a experience into two types - primary and secondary.

But he cannot explain the pnmary Rasa perfectly because

Advaita Vediintic Absolute does not tolerate a predicate.

Sankariiciirya' s Miiyiiviida completely rejects the world objects.

Vediintins hold that the eternal Bliss is attained by making oneself free

from all the feelings. Therefore, Swikariiciirya' s philosophy cannot

explain aesthetic experience perfectly because his NirgwJabrahman

would not accept the art object as real and negates creativity. It

cannot give a philosophical status to both artist and aesthete. But in

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Kashmir Saivism, Paramesvara brings to play his Mahamayasakti and

starts the world drama which is a mode of self-revelation. Siva is the

supreme agent, the ultimate experiencer and supreme enjoyer. In

Kashmir Saivism the bliss is enjoyed by the Jivatmans on the basis of this

philosophy and therefore, we can undoubtedly claim that aesthetic

experience is enjoyed by the Sahrdaya.

It is a fact that the experience of Rasa demands a rejection of

negativism. Therefore, to satisfactorily interpret aesthetic pleasure or

Delight a philosophy different from Advaita Vedanta is required.

Advaita Vedanta does not have the essential principles, which are

necessary to explain the aesthetic experience. A valid and cogent

interpretation of Rasa has been given by Abhinavagupta based on his

philosophy of Pratyabhijfia which has a positive attitude to art, artist, the

enjoyment of art and the Sahrdaya. Kashmir Saivism holds that the

human soul is of the nature of Ananda but it is veiled in ignorance and

evil. When the ignorance is unveiled by the light of Cit sakti, it becomes

transformed into Siva stage and he experiences Pure Bliss and this stage is

called Anuttariivasthii. These concepts of Kashmir Saivism lead

Abhinavagupta to interpret the aesthetic experience successfully. He

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states that the mind of a spectator is activated by Vibhiiva etc. when the

veil of nescience is removed by Vyanjana, the ordinary feelings such as

pity, fear etc of the ordinary people are transformed into an extraordinary

state which is more other than the state of Rasa experience.

Abhinavagupta's interpretation on Rasa enjoyment gives more emphasize

to creativity of the artist and re-creativity on the part of the aesthete.

Abhinavagupta applies Kashmir Saivism to interpret the Rasasutra

of Bharata. He is the first author who has applied a philosophical system

as a whole to interpret the aesthetic experience. He has dealt with almost

every important aspect of Indian aesthetics in his two commentaries. By

Rasa, Abhinavagupta means that the spectators of a drama can have an

aesthetic experience or reach a state of Bliss which is none other than the

identifying state of Siva.

The world reflects Siva's consc10usness and the art objects are

reflected in the consciousness of the artist. In Abhinavagupta's system

the knower of Brahman ought to do activities for the welfare of the whole

world. These concepts of Kashmir Saivism have lead Abhinavagupta to

equate the artist to Siva. Paramasiva enjoys himself and helps others

rejoice themselves at his self-revelation. Likewise, the artist experiences

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joy at the moment of creation and provides delight to his audience.

Abhinavagupta regards an art object as the desired object of cognition and

aesthetic experience is the favoured mode of experiencing reality.

Therefore he undeniably places aesthetics in a true philosophical stream.

Theoreticians and scholars before Abhinavagupta have presented

the origin of Rasa as the transfonnation of Sthiiyin or latent emotions, but

they have failed to explain how Sthiiyin is transformed into Rasa or

sadness is transformed into delight. Differing from other critics and

thinkers, Abhinavagupta approaches Sthiiyin from a psychological and

philosophical basis. The Sthiiyin is not mere feelings of the mind to

Abhinavagupta and he uses the term Viisana to illustrate Sthiiyin which is

an important term in Pratyabhijna philosophy. Abhinavagupta has given

a cogent explanation to the process of transformation of Sthiiyin into Rasa

by relating it to the aspect of Sakti inherent, in the philosophy of Kashmir­

Saivism. It is the result of self-conscious of an individual finding its

identity with the universal consciousness and the spectator identifies

himself as Siva. On the basis of this idea of Kashmir Saivism,

Abhinavagupta has clearly solved the problem of the transformation of

Sthayin into Rasa.

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Abhinavagupta's Abhinavabhiirati is a valid literary theory and it

has a perfect philosophical basis which is none other the Pratyabhijnii

philosophy. Therefore, Abhinavagupta's interpretation of Rasa theory is

not refuted by anyone successfully and no one can say anything more on

Rasa theory than what is presented by Abhinavagupta. He believes that

the arts have been originated only to inspire the ordinary people towards

spiritualism. He utilizes materials from the philosophical system of

Kashmir Saivism because aesthetic experience is easily attained and it is

particularly suitable for people endowed with gentle and sensitive mind.

Abhinavagupta tries to apply the philosophical terms frequently in

his Abhinavabhiirati to expose and explain Rasa theory and the Rasa

experience. Therefore Abhinavabhiirati can be understood only through

the knowledge of Pratyabhijfiii philosophy. Kashmir Saivism holds that

Mahesvara is like a mirror and the wordly objects are His reflections

reflected in the mirror like 'Citi'. In Abhinavabharati he explains the

same idea and identifies Rasa as Caitanya. He gives the same

consideration of the Adhikiirin of Pratyabhijfiii to the qualified person or

Sahrdaya of Arts. He equates· the mental state of a spectator to

Anuttariivasthii which is the ultimate state of Kashmir Saivism.

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Pratyabhijfiii Darsana asserts that the Absolute is the unity of subject and

object. Likewise, during the time of aesthetic experience, the subject is

free from limitations of the objects which leads to a union of subject and

object. It means that the aesthete also enters into Divine experience

because in him there is the union of self and universal consciousness.

Therefore, Abhinavagupta emphasizes that Rasa is the unity of subject

and object in which all objectivity merges in the sub-conscious and the

subject shines in its Ananda aspects.

In Abhinavabhiirati, Abhinavagupta reveals that when the Sthiiyin

relates to Vibhiiva etc., it will be dynamic and becomes patent and is

called Rasa. Rasa is also the capacity of self-revelation like Prakiisa.

The most primary state of Prakiisa is static. The Sthiiyin is pre­

experienced knowledge or Pure Existence. Therefore, Rasa is the unity of

Prakiisa and Vimarsa which is one of the characteristics of the Trika

Absolute. Prakiisa and Vimada states are only the two sides of the same

thing. Likewise, Sthiiyin and Rasa are the two states of the same thing.

Prakiisa and Vimarsa are inseparable because conscious is always the

nature of Self-Consciousness. Likewise, Rasa and Bhiiva cannot be

separated because aesthetic experience is Pure Knowledge - 'Rasana ca

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bodhariipaiva'. Therefore, we can summaries that Rasa is the unity of the

eternal consciousness with its own passive self or the unity of Prakiisa

and Vimarsa.

Trika accepts Camatkiira as the nature of Absolute. Abhinavagupta

in his Abhinavabhiirati treats Camatkiira as the nature of aesthetic

experience. It shows that aesthetic experience is not different from the

nature of the Absolute Experience of Pratyabhijfiii system. Kashmir-

Saivism emphasizes that the consciousness of a Saivite is not restricted by

time and space. Therefore, Abhinavagupta in his Abhinavabhiirati argues

that the consciousness of an aesthete is free from time and space. The

ultimate experiencing state of Paramasiva is timeless and placeless.

Therefore, he holds that Rasa is timeless and placeless experience. This

concept of Kashmir Saivism leads Abhinavagupta to equate Rasa

experience to the state of experiencing Paramasiva.

Abhinavagupta uses the word Samvitti as a synonym of Rasa which

is considered as a specialized form of Siva in his philosophical system.

He has also used the term 'Vi,~riinti' to denote the state of aesthetic

experience which explains the state of complete repose. From these

references we can come to a conclusion that Abhinavagupta identified,

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Samvit as Rasa because it consists of Ananda. Rasiinanda is Atmiinanda

and therefore, he uses the term Visriinti as a synonym of the state of Rasa

expenence.

Like Pratyabhijnii, the contact with the present impression and the

recalling of past impression are essential in aesthetics. The latent

impression or Sthiiyin becomes patent with the help of Vibhiiva etc. In

Pratyabhijfiii, the eternal splendour of the past experience is recalled by

Abhijfiiina. In aesthetics the pre-experienced Sthiiyin is recalled by the

Vibhiiva. In short, the process of Pratyabhijnii is similar to the process of

Rasa experience.

Kashmir Saivism holds that the manifestation of the universe is a

world drama of the ultimate creator Paramasiva which is an expression of

the idea or the experience of Paramasiva. Abhinavagupta equates the

manifestation of the universe by Siva to the artistic creation of an artist

because the artistic creation is a process by which he pleases himself as

well as the reader and spectator. These two creations are happened as a

result of two distinct powers that exist in their creators. In the case of an

artist this power is called Pratibhii and in Kashmir Saivism it is

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designated as Sakti. Therefore Abhinavagupta identifies Pratibha as

Mahe,frara 's power of freedom.

Paramasiva or the Supreme Reality is reflected in thirtysix

principles into world phenomenon. A majority of philosophers agree that

these thirtysix Tattvas generally show eight characteristics. These eight

characteristics are termed by Abhinavagupta as Murtis or Bhavas of

Paramasiva. He thinks that the manifestation of the universe is

symbolized by the Divine dance of Siva. His dance may be considered as

Brahman entering into the being and matter. Abhinavagupta considers

that all objects are the incarnations of Paramasiva and everything consists

of beauty and beauty is the presence of Siva. It suggests that the

manifestation of the Absolute is symbolized by the Divine dance of Siva

which also creates beauty. Therefore, he observes that the rhythm of art

corresponds to the cosmic rhythm which is symbolized by the dance

rhythm of Siva.

Like Siva, the artist is a creator when his Will of Freedom is

fulfilled, who gives birth to things of beauty, satisfying himself as well as

the Sahrdaya. The devotee through his meditation on the image of God,

enters into the cosmic span of life and realizes that the Absolute or the

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Supreme Spirit as transcendental and immanent. Likewise, the Sahrdaya

enters into the world of art and recognizes the universe as the immanent

state of the transcendental and universal Rasa. Therefore Abhinavagupta

says that there is only one main Rasa or Maharasa in which other Rasas

appear as its shadows. Maharasa corresponds to the state of Bhairava

consciousness of Kashmir Saivism.

In Indian art, the various Murtis may be classified according to the

nine Rasas which constitute the foundation of Abhinavagupta's concept

on aesthetics. The Ardhaniirzsvara image, a perfect visual representation

or a symbol of the Pratyabhijna system of Kashmir Saivism is accepted

by Abhinavagupta to interpret Rasa. He analyses the image of

Ardhaniirzsvara and the basic nature of arts because he realizes that they

have some inter-relation. Ardhaniirzsvara is also a model of aesthetic

experience. The concept of Ardhaniirzsvara is based on philosophical

concept that the Absolute is the unity of Prakiisa vimarsa.

Siva as a dancing God is called Na.tariija or Supreme dancer. It is a

dance of ecstacy and it is called the Tan<fava Nrtya. It represents the

rhythm and unity of the universe and the sublimity of nature. The

Saiviigamas state that Siva danced in a hundred and eight modes but

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content themselves with the description of nine modes as it is very

difficult to describe all. Therefore, Siva's Tan(java is said to be the

embodiment of the nine Rasas. The image of Na.taraja is a visual

embodiment of As.tamurti or the eight realities. The purpose of His dance

is revealed in the form of the experience of the unfolding of His own soul

and heart. To one who experiences the state of Siva all the objects

reveal their beauty. Therefore the dance of Siva, like the arts, enables the

devotees and spectators to recognize their true nature. Abhinavagupta

holds that beauty is the manifestation of Siva which means that beauty in

essence is the reality itself. Likewise, the aesthete realizes beauty as

essential reality which exists in every object. Therefore, Abhinavagupta

in his Abhinavabharati states that everything in the world consists of

Ras a - 'Rasamayam visvam'. This experience is realized by the aesthete

through Pure Knowledge which is none other than beauty. Therefore, all

rhythm of art corresponds to the dancing of Siva or dance mode and the

rhythm of Na.taraja.

Hence it can be concluded that the concept of the universe and arts

is the key to understanding creativity and creation on the one hand and the

appreciation of what is created in the world or aesthetics on the other.

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Na,taraja pose of Siva and the full fledged and flourishing state of

Bhadrakali etc. symbolize both the manifestation of the immanent state of

Paramasiva and Navarasa. The Navarasas together form the basis of all

those actions that are manifested in the universe as well as residing in

ourselves. Everything in the universe is classified on the basis of

Navarasas. It means that Na,taraja pose of Siva is transformed into

tremendous state of creation and is filled with the highest form of joy or

cosmic joy. Abhinavagupta argues that a man is related to Siva or this

manifestations. When a man is conscious of this relationship in all his

actions he gets transformed into the tremendous state of Siva. Siva

transforms a man of goodness into immortality by using his power of

blessing. The merciful grace of Siva's Will allows him to proceed further

on the mystical path to Supreme Consciousness. According to Kashmir

Saivism, in the final state, the self is filled with joy and is absorbed in

union with God - this is Paramo/cya or final liberation whereas in

aesthetics,according to Abhinavagupta, the codification or unification of

the Navarasas results in Supreme Joy of Brahman and aesthetically this

can be termed as Rasa or the ultimate Paramananda.

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Therefore it can be concluded that the Pratyabhijnii

philosophy has influenced Abhinavagupta m propounding and

interpreting his aesthetic concept. The philosophico-aesthetic confluence

of Abhinavagupta's interpretation of aesthetics has given a greater

dimension, vigour and vitality to Indian aesthetics.