CHAPTER – VI CRISIS OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION

CHAPTER – VI

CRISIS OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION

The father of India’s Green Revolution, Dr M.S. Swaminathan while talking to Economic

Times Kolkata Bureau in 2004 had said that our ‘Green Revolution’ has been abused into

‘Greed Revolution’ by over – exploitation of groundwater and excessive use of

pesticides.1

There have been some disturbing developments in Punjab agriculture during the

post Green Revolution period. Within two decades, the technology encompassing

intensive cultivation, high use of agro-chemicals and greater requirement of water and

rapid growth of mechanization has created several adverse effects on environment,

ecological balance and society. Vandana Shiva remarked that the invisible ecological,

political and cultural crisis of the Green Revolution became visible. The Green

Revolution has become conflict-producing instead of conflict-reducing.2

The agricultural scene in Punjab is changing very fast for the worse. No doubt, the

rice and wheat cropping pattern has brought positive changes in the living conditions of

the farmers, but several new problems have cropped up. The first and the foremost

problem is the sustainability of the rice-wheat crop rotation. The productivity of both rice

and wheat seems to be reaching a plateau. The productivity of other crops, such as

sugarcane, cotton, oilseeds and pulses has either remained stagnant or marginally

increased. The rice-wheat cropping pattern has adversely affected water and land

1 M.S. Swaminathan, Economic Times Kolkata Bureau, 2004, cited in M.S. Sidhu & P.S. Rangi,

“Dynamics of Unemployment in Punjab : An Analysis” in Balbir Singh (ed.) Punjab Economy :

Challenges and Strategies, p. 63.

2 Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution : Third World Agriculture, Ecology and

Politics, p.15.

Crisis of the Green Revolution Crisis of the Green Revolution Crisis of the Green Revolution Crisis of the Green Revolution

248

resources. The water resources of the state are being over-exploited. Water table in

central districts of Punjab is declining at 23 cm per annum.3

The over exploitation of ground water has created the scarcity of water. If the

process of declining water table continues for the next 15 years, Punjab would have to

spend Rupees 2000 crores on submersible pumps for replacing 2.5 centrifugal pumps. On

the other side the western districts of the state are facing severe problem of water logging.

The water table has risen in this part of the state by 4-5 meters within decade’s time.4

The excessive use of this ground water leads to increased level of salinity in the soil. If

this trend continues, a large area might go out of cultivation.

In the post-Green Revolution period, soil is constantly being degraded and

destroyed. The soil of Punjab is primarily light textured, poor in organic carbon and

nutrient resources. The nutrient reserves of soil are being further exploited at a much

faster rate due to the high cropping intensity and extensive adoption of rice-wheat

rotation. The high profitability of rice-wheat crop production has been achieved with the

excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides. The imbalanced use of these inputs has

affected soil health adversely. It has become hungry as well as thirsty.

5

Increasing production and profitability and reducing the cost of production is one

of the important components of agricultural development strategy. But with the steep

increase in the price of inputs such fertilizers and real wages in Punjab, the cost of

various crops has risen. As a result, the profitability of farmers has declined.

The Green Revolution has been a paradoxical process. According to Vandana

Shiva If on the one hand, it offered technology as a substitute to both nature and politics

3 Report of the Expert Group on Agricultural Indebtedness, p.19. Also see K. Venkatasubramanian,

“Future Development of Agriculture in Punjab” in S.S Johl & S.K. Ray (eds.), Future of

Agriculture in Punjab, Centre for Research in Rural & Industrial development Chandigarh. p, 12.

4 Jaspinder Singh Kolar & N.S. Butter,” Priorities of Punjab Agricultural”, Progressive Farming,

March, 2000, p.7.

5 Report of The World Bank, Resuming Punjab’s Prosperity ; The Opportunities and Challenges

Ahead, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit, South Asia Region, 2004, p.

4. Also see, B.S. Hansra, G. Perumal & K.. Chandrakandan (eds.), Modernizing Indian

Agriculture in 21st

Century : Challenges, Opportunities and Strategies, Concept Publishing

Company, New Delhi, 2007, pp.7-8.


249

in the creation of abundance and peace. On the other hand, the technology itself

demanded more intensive natural resources use along with intensive external inputs. As a

result, new relationships between the state and cultivators, between international interest

and local communities within the agrarian society developed.6

The Green Revolution ended India’s dependence on other countries. But it is also

true that Punjab agriculture is now facing serious problems. There is no scope for further

expansion of the area for cultivation or increase in cropping intensity. The increase in

prices of inputs and labour have pushed the cost of production many times.

I

DEPLETION OF WATER RESOURCES

Water is a major input under the Green Revolution strategy. Miracle seeds of

Green Revolution created a new thirst for irrigation. The new demand of irrigation

compelled the Punjab Government to explore the possibilities of new water resources and

speeding up the projects already undertaken. In 1950-51, 25-30 percent of the cropped

area in Punjab was irrigated against 17.11 percent at the national level. With the

cooperation of the Centre government, the state government and private investment , this

percentage increased in Punjab to about 90 percent in 1983-84, only 28.61 percent at

national level. It has almost reached the saturation point while at the national level, there

is still tremendous scope for further expansin.7

The Green Revolution increased the need for irrigation water at two levels.

Firstly, the shifts from millets, pulses and oilseeds to wheat and paddy cycle increased the

need of water through out the year. Secondly, the new varieties of wheat and rice also

increased the intensity of irrigation. High yielding varieties of wheat and rice needed

more irrigation than traditional varieties.

6 Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution : Third World Agriculture, Ecology and

Politics, p.47.

7 Speech of Captain Amrinder Singh, Chief Minister, Punjab, Delivered at the Fifty First Meeting of

National Development Counsel on the 27th and 28

th June, 2005, New Delhi.


250

In 1970-71, the area under canal irrigation was 12.86 lakh hectare which rose to

16.6 lakh hectare in 1990-91. It fell to 9.62 lakh hectares in 2000-01. At present, 11.01

lakh hectares are under canal irrigation which is around 36 percent of the total irrigated

area in the state. The water availability from the three rivers also fell from 17.17 million

acres feet to around 14MAF.8

The Canal System, which irrigated nearly one-third of the total area in Punjab is

highly skewed. The area under canal irrigation is declining every year because of

decreasing carrying capacity of canals and lesser water coming from the rivers of Sutlej,

Beas and Ravi. Canal irrigated area of Punjab has further reduced. The capacity to irrigate

the area thorough canal network in the state came down to about28 percent by 2006-07.9

Seventy-five percent of small canals of the Punjab face the danger of survival due to the

carelessness of Irrigation Department of Punjab.10 The canal network of Punjab had been

neglected for a long time. The availability of river water has come down because the

average rainfall in the region has gone down substantially. But the main reason for

decline in canal water irrigation is lack of maintenance and supervision of the concerning

authorities.11

The demand for irrigation water has gone up due to the increased paddy cultivation.

As the canal system of Punjab carries less water, farmers have dug up more and more

tube wells, raising their dependence on electricity, diesel and ground water.12 As a result ,

the general level of ground water tend to fall 23 cms every year in Punjab. This problem

is becoming more and more serious in the central plains and the sub-mountainous zone of

8 Statistical Abstract of Punjab, 2004, p. 234. Also see, Bikram Singh Virk, “Water and Power

Crisis in Punjab”, The Tribune, January, 5, 2008.

9 “Punjab Lets it Canals Run Dry”, The Tribune, 24 January, 2008, p. 1.

10 The Dainik Jagaran, August 11, 2008.

11 “Punjab Lets it Canals Run Dry”, The Tribune, 24 January, 2008. Also see “Canals of Despair:

Protect Water Resources”, The Tribune, 25 January, 2008, and Joginder Singh, G.S.Dhaliwal and

N.S. Randhawa, “Changing Scenario of Punjab Agricultural : An Ecological Perspective”,

Proceedings of International Conference on Ecological Agriculture : Towards Sustainable

Development, Centre for Research in Rural & Industrial Development, Chandigarh, 1997, p.77.

12 “Canals of Despair : Protect Water Resources”, The Tribune, 25 January, 2008. Also see, Speech

of Captain Amrinder Singh, Chief Minister, Punjab, Delivered at the Fifty First Meeting of

National Development Council on the 27th and 28

th June, 2005, New Delhi.


251

the state.13 In the Central plains, the tube wells irrigate 78.6 percent area.

14 According to

Dr Viraj Bairy, the Head of Soil Science Department of Punjab, Agricultural University,

Ludhiana, the level of ground water is going down by 55 cms in Punjab every year since

1993-94. If this situation continues it will lead to the level of water going further down by

more than 70 feet in the 50 percent region of Punjab, 100 feet in the 14 percent and more

than 130 feet in 2 percent area of Punjab by 2013. In 1964, the water level was 5 feet in

the 23 percent region of the state, from 5-10 feet in the other 20 percent region, from 10-

20 feet in 11 percent of the region and the remaining 42 percent area of Punjab had the

water level of 25 feet.15

The inability of the canals to meet the irrigation demands of the state has led to

increase in the number of tube wells. In 1970-71 there were 1.92 lakh tube wells, of

which 1.01 lakh were running on diesel, while 91,000 were running on electricity. This

number increased to 6 lakh in 1980-81 and touched 8 lakh in 1990-91. Due to the cheap

credit and free supply of electricity, the use of electric operated tube wells have gone up

from 91,000 in 1970-71 to 7,65,000 in 2000-01 to 2002-03.16 In fact, in a period of three

and half decades after the Green Revolution, the number of tube wells have increased by

six times and three-fourth of them are being run on electricity which lead to higher power

consumption in the agriculture sector.17

The increase in the number of tube wells has led to over exploitation of

groundwater resulting in rapid decline of water table in the state. The easy and cheap

availability of water has even changed the cropping season. The sowing or planting of

kharif crops starts one or two weeks before the arrival of the monsoon in general. In

13 “Canals of Despair : Protect Water Resources”, The Tribune, 25 January, 2008 and R.S. Sidhu &

S.S. Johl, “Three Decades of Intensive Agriculture in Punjab : Socio Economic and

Environmental Consequences” in S.S. Johl & S.K. Ray (eds.). Future of Agriculture in Punjab,

p.28.

14 R.S. Sidhu & S.S. Johl, “Three Decades of Intensive Agriculture in Punjab”, p.31.

15 The Dainik Jagaran, May 7, 2007.

16 Statistical Abstract of Punjab, p. 226, and “Canals of Despair : Protect Water Resources”, The

Tribune, 25 January, 2008.

17 Bikram Singh Virk, “Water and Power Crisis in Punjab”, The Tribune, January, 5, 2008


252

Punjab, the monsoon arrives in the end of June. But it is estimated that at least 10 percent

of the paddy is planted during April-May. The early start of procurement process of

paddy in September has also encouraged the farmers to go for early planting of rice. In

earlier times, the procurement process of paddy used to start from October. But the early

procurement policy has also made adverse effect on water resources.18

The area under different water table depth in various districts during the last 20

years (June, 1973 and June, 1994) as follows : -

Area (ha) under different water table depth

District <5m 5-10m >10m Total

Area June

1973

June

1994

June

1973

June

1994

June

1973

June

1994

Amritsar 220700 41600 264000 418000 24000 49100 508700

Bhatinda 137900 148900 165200 307600 252000 98600 555100

Faridkot 153700 257000 221600 211700 198700 105300 574000

Ferozepur 385600 127000 41800 426400 160000 34000 587000

Gurdaspur 184000 118700 90100 170500 82100 67000 356200

Hoshiarpur 62700 65500 137500 184500 187900 138100 388100

Jalandhar 89900 Nil 231700 149200 18500 190900 240100

Kapurthala 96600 11300 66700 114200 Nil 87800 163300

Ludhiana 97500 72000 271500 140600 16700 173100 385700

Patiala 215900 4000 232200 152200 10300 300200 458400

Ropar 47600 68800 79500 71900 81400 67800 208500

Sangrur 198400 6000 312300 173000 Nil 331700 510700

Total 1890500 920800 2114100 2519,800 1031600 1595600 5036220

Percent 37.5 18.3 41.0 50.0 20.5 31.7

Source : S.K. Sondhi & S.D. Khepar, “Water Resource Development and Management for Sustainable

Development in Punjab”,19

18 K. Venkatsubramanian, “Future Development of Agriculture in Punjab”, Member, Planning

Commission, Delhi, Key Note Address, in S.S. Johl & S.K. Ray (eds.), Future of Agriculture in

Punjab, pp. 11-12.

19 S.K. Sondhi & S.D. Khepar, “Water Resource Development and Management for Sustainable

Development in Punjab”, Water Management, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhana, 1995, pp.

4-17, cited in Joginder Singh, G.S. Dhaliwal and N.S. Randhawa, “Changing Scenario of Punjab

Agriculture : An Ecological Perspective”, pp. 77-78.


253

The above table shows that the area under water table depth less than 5 metres has

been reduced from 37.5 to 18.3 percent, area under 5-10 metres depth has increased from

42 to 50 percent. Similarly, the area under water table depth more than 10 metres has

increased from 20.5 to 31.7 percent. Thus except in certain pockets of south-western

Punjab, water table has been steadily declining in the post-Green Revolution period.

A study was conducted by Water Resources Department of Punjab in 1998-99.

Out of 138 blocks in the state, 84 blocks were considered as dark, 16 as grey and 38 as

white blocks.20 It has been estimated that in the central plains, about 25 percent of the

blocks fall in the category of dark zone where the exploitations rate is more than 100

percent. In 17 percent of the blocks the exploitation rate is even more than 150 percent.21

According to the Central Ground Water Board, the annual water discharge in

Punjab is 23.78 billion cubic meters and the net water availability is 21.44 billion cubic

meters. The withdrawal, on the other hand is 31.16 billion cubic meter annually, which is

145 percent of the availability, causing fast decline in the water table, which has been

falling at the rate of 25-30 cms per annum. In 1973, the area where the water level was

below 10 meters stood at mere 3 percent in 2008. It was estimated to be more than 75

percent.22

The rice-wheat rotation has disturbed the general water balance of the Punjab and

raised the question of the sustainability of rice-wheat cropping pattern. Eighty five

percent of the area of the state is facing the problem of falling water level. It is also

causing a heavy burden on the farmers as well as states financial resources. According to

soil and water engineering experts, every fall of 1 meter in the ground water table raises

20 “Free Power for Tubewells Rings Alarm Bells”, Yojana, August, 2006, p. 50 and Anjali Mehra &

P.S. Raikhy, “Sustainability of Punjab’s Agriculture : An Analysis”, in R.s. Bawa, P.S. Raikhy

and Paramjit Kaur Dhindsa (eds.), Globalisation and Punjab Economy : Issues in Agriculture, and

Small Scale Industries, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, pp. 144-145.

21 R.D. Gupta, G. Mahajan & B.R. Goyal, “Availability and Quality of Ground Water in Punjab

State”, in Proceedings of the Water Management Symposium, Punjab Agricultural

University,Ludhiana, 1995, pp. 75-82.

22 Bikram Singh Virk, “Water and Power Crisis in Punjab”, The Tribune, January, 5, 2008.


254

the power consumption by 10 percent.23 By 1994, power consumption had increased by

more than 20 percent due to, mainly, the fall in water table. This additional consumption

came to 1150 million kwh of power priced at Rs. 269 crores per year at the existing level

of power supply and cost of generation transmission. Secondly farmers are compelled to

go in for deeper tube wells. This raised their cost of production.24

The World Watch Institute has warned that if the water is hauled at this rate, the

whole ground water in Punjab shall be finished by 2025. The only comfortable areas,

where the water level is not much lower, happens to be in the vicinity of rivers or in those

districts where the canals irrigation network exist for agriculture purposes. The climatic

changes and decline in rain fall further added to water woes of the state in the form of

inadequate recharging of ground water. The annual rain fall which was 672.3 mm in 1970

rose to 754.6 mm in 1990. It has since been falling rapidly and halved to 391.9 mm in

2000. In the new century, it has remained below the mark of 400 mm and stood at 375.5

mm in 2004.25

On the other side, with the onset of monsoon lethal gases are formed in deep pits

of tube wells. Whenever a farmer goes down deep into a pit to identify problem, he

become victim of lethal gases and die of asphyxia. There are reports that since 1985,

about 63 persons have lost their lives in deep pits of tube wells.26

23 M.S. Toor, Sukhpal Singh & Inderpreet Kaur, “Detrimental Effect of Agricultural Development

Model of Punjab”, in Balbir Singh )ed.), Punjab Economy : Challenges and Strategies, p. 307;

Chitleen K. Sethi, “Punjab needs to have Water Vision”, The Tribune, 29 April, 2005, and P.K.

Joshi & N.K. Tyagi, “Sustainability of Existing Farming System in Punjab and Haryana-Some

Issues of Ground Water Use”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 46, No. 3, July-

September, 1991, p. 412. Also see, R.S. Sidhu and S.S. Johl, “Three Decades of Intensive

Agriculture in Punjab : Socio-Economic and Environmental Consequences”, in S.S. Johl and S.K.

Ray (Eds.), Future of Agriculture in Punjab, p. 33.

24 “Canals of Despair : Project Water Resources”, The Tribune, 25 January, 2008.

25 Bikram Singh Virk, “Water and Power Crisis in Punjab”, The Tribune, January, 5, 2008.

26 P.S. Joshi & N.K. Tyagi, “Sustainability of Existing Farming System in Punjab and Haryana-

Some Issues on Ground water Use”, Indian Journal of Agriculture Economics, pp. 414-415.


255

II

OVER CAPITALIZATION AND INDEBTEDNESS

After 1980, the benefits of Green Revolution started faded away. Since eighties,

there has been decline in crop yield. In the case of wheat, yield declined from pre 1980

level of 2.47 percent per annum over the following decade. The decline in rice yield was

dramatic. It was from 6.01 percent to 0.59 percent for the same period. As per

information of Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, Tamil Nadu’s per hectare

paddy yield is 3,579 kgs/per hectare against 3,317 kgs/per hectare of Punjab in 2000,

which shows that Punjab was lagging behind. 27

The new farm technology adopted by farmers since mid sixties required heavy

investment of capital in the form of farm machinery, irrigation equipments and other

inputs like chemical fertilizers, pesticides/insecticides, etc.28 Increasing production and

productivity as well as reducing the cost of production is one of the important component

of the new agricultural strategy. However, since eighties, the fixed cost had started rising

because of over-capitalization.

In the post Green Revolution period, 96 percent of the gross sown area of the

Punjab was irrigated by the late nineties. Almost 100 percent of the wheat area and 94

percent of the rice area was under high yielding varieties for the same period. Near about,

87 percent of the paddy area and 52 percent of the wheat area in the Punjab was being

harvested by combined harvester.29

The number of tractors in Punjab have increased from 1.25 lakh in 1980-81 to

4.10 lakh in 2002-03. The concentration of tractors in some areas is so high that the

machine does not find customers for hiring. The average utilization of tractor is estimated

27 Punjab Human Development Report, 2009, p. 175. Also see, Anjali Mera & P.S. Raikhy,

“Sustainability of Punjab’s Agriculture : An Analysis”, p.142.

28 P.S.Ragi & M.S. Sidhu, “Problems and Prospects of Agriculture in Punjab” in R.S. Bawa & P.S.

Raikhy (eds.) : Punjab Economy : Emerging Issues, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 2000,

p.17.



th June, 2005, New Delhi and B.S. Bindra, O.P.

Rupela, V.Beri & P.K. Joshi, “Sustainability, Implications of Burning Rice & Wheat Straw in

Punjab” Economic and Political Weekly , 33 (39) September 26, 1998, A 163-A 168.


256

to be 20 percent of its capacity in Punjab. For example, the average annual use is only

400 hours compared with the minimum viable use of 1000 hours in case of tractors. It has

been estimated that 19 percent of the tractor sellers sell their tractors due to their

uneconomical use on the farm, which is a clear indication of over investment in

agricultural sector.30 As a result, the fixed cost in crop cultivation has increased. This has

decreased the profitability especially of the small and marginal farmers who have

invested in farm equipment. The capital assets are grossly underutilized due to low and

decreasing size of the farm.

The other indication of over capitalization in the agriculture sector in the 1990s

has been the emergence of second hand tractor markets where farmers sell old and many

times new tractors to meet other requirements of family. In Malwa region, there are daily,

weekly and fortnightly markets for the sale and purchase of second hand as well as new

tractors in various towns. Punjab has more than 4 lakh tractors accounting for one-fourth

of the total numbers of the tractors in the country with just 2.5 percent of cultivated area.

This figure is both encouraging as well as disturbing. Punjab has 11.17 lakh operational

holdings in 1991. It means that every third holdings in the state is equipped with a tractor,

though more than 70 percent operational holdings are below 10 acres each. This is a

situation of over capitalization in agriculture sector.31

According to a study on Income and Expenditure Distribution in Punjab

Agriculture, tractors, diesel engines, electric motors and thrashers is a common feature of

the agriculture of Punjab. This study also showed that ‘combines’ a machine that is used

only during harvesting and has taken away employment from a large number of farm

labourers, work for only 11.59 hours a year. More than three-fourth of the diesel engines

available in the state are lying idle. The only source used more than required is electric

motors and this much to do with the fact that power comes free to farmers in Punjab. The

30 R.S. Sidhu & S.S. Johl, “Three Decades of Intensive Agriculture in Punjab : Socio-Economic and

Environmental Consequences”, pp. 21-22 and Sukhpal Singh, “Farming Crisis and Farmer

Suicides in Punjab : an Examination of Institutional Dimensions”, In Balbir Singh (eds.) “Punjab

Economy : Challenges and Strategies”, p.257

31 Punjab Development Report, 2002, p. 114. Also see, Sukhpal Singh “Farming Crisis and Farmer

Suicides in Punjab : an Examination of Institutional Dimensions”, In Balbir Singh (eds.) Punjab

Economy : Challenges and Strategies, p. 257.


257

use of electric motor is 100.35 hours per hectare.32 As earlier discussed, the water table of

the state is falling at an alarming rate due to the paddy-wheat rotation. It is estimated that

during the next few years the farmers would spend Rs. 2000 crore to replace tube wells

by deep bore wells and submersible motors to sustain the output without adding anything

to productivity gains.33

The increased level of mechanization has also changed the attitude of agricultural

families towards labour. The youth from farming families have stopped doing manual

work. They have limited themselves to handling of tractors and attending to other

machines. Hired labour attend even to these jobs in many cases. Agriculturists have

become supervisors rather than cultivators. Punjab faces an acute labour shortage in

paddy season is a known and established fact. But not many know that 48.66 percent of

the total ‘family labour’ - members of a farmer’s family available for agriculture remains

under utilized in Punjab. In his study, “A Study into the Economics of Farming and

Pattern of Income and Expenditure Distribution in Punjab Agriculture”, Sukhpal Singh

remarked that the farm family labour is surplus in the Punjab farms and despite this a

large magnitude of hired labour isat work. In fact, Punjab is over capitalized due to the

new agricultural strategy.34

The financial condition of the peasantry is deteriorating and incidences of

indebtedness are increasing. In India, total debt of farmer households was estimated at

Rs. 1.12 lakh crores in 2003. Out of this Rs. 65 thousand crores was from institutional

agencies and Rs. 48 thousand crores from non-institutional agencies. Private money

lenders accounted for Rs. 29 thousand crores and traders for Rs. 6 thousand crores.

Around Rs. 18 thousand crores of debt is from non-institutional sources, a major portion

of which was from money lenders.35

32 The Indian Express, October, 26, 2010.

33 The Tribune, August 22, 2006 and Sukhpal Singh, “Farming Crisis and Farmer Suicides in Punjab

: an Examination of Institutional Dimensions”, p. 257 and Karam Singh, “Agricultural and Rural

Development of Punjab : Entrapped in Bitter Economic Environment : Need Massive Investment

and Overhauls “, in R.S. Bawa & P.S. Raikhy, Paramjit Kaur, Issues in Agriculture and Small

Scales, pp. 152-153

34 The Indian Express, October 26, 2010.

35 Report of the Expert Group on Agricultural Indebtedness, July, 2007, p. 59.


258

Share of Debt of Cultivator Household from different Sources from 1951 to 2002 at

National level

Sources of Credit 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2002

Institutional 7.3 18.7 31.7 63.2 66.3 61.1

Co-operative

Societies/Banks etc

3.3 2.6 22.0 29.8 30.0 30.2

Commercial Banks 0.9 0.6 2.4 28.8 35.2 26.3

Non-institutional 92.7 81.3 66.3 36.8 30.6 38.9

Money Lenders 69.7 49.2 36.1 16.1 17.5 26.8

Un specified -- -- -- -- 3.1 --

Source- Reserve Bank Of India, All India Credit Survey, 1951-52, RBI, All India Rural Debt and

Investment Survey, 1961-62 and NSSO All India Debt and Investment Survey, 1971-72, 1981-82, 1991-92

and 2002.36

Distribution of Debt by different Sources in Punjab in 2003

Institutional Non-Institutional

Government 1.9% Money Lenders 36.3%

Co-operatives 17.7% Traders 8.2%

Banks 28.4% Others 7.6%

Total 47.9% Total 52.1%

Source- Report of the Expert Group on Agricultural Indebtedness.37

As per the above table, the share of non-institutional sources of farmers debt is

52.1 percent against 47.9 percent of institutional sources. Money lenders are still an

important source of finance in Punjab. The share of money lenders outstanding debt was

higher than that of banks and co-operatives. It is indeed a matter of concern that in spite

of all the efforts made for the spread of institutional finance, it could account for only

47.9 percent of the farmers total outstanding debt. The interest rate charged by the non-

institutional sources are high, this has put heavy burden on the farmers. Seventy-five

36 Reserve Bank Of India, All India Credit Survey, 1951-52, RBI, All India Rural Debt and

Investment Survey, 1961-62 and NSSO All India Debt and Investment Survey, 1971-72, 1981-82,

1991-92 and 2002 cited in Report of the Expert Group on Agricultural Indebtedness, July, 2007, p.

60.

37 Report of the Expert Group on Agricultural Indebtedness, July, 2007, p. 61.


259

percent farmers who own less than one hectare land took loan from non-institutional

agencies in 2003. Fifty percent farmers who own two hectares, also took loan from non-

institutional sources. Thirty nine percent who own land up to four hectare, 52.5 who own

up to10 hectares and 69.9 percent who own above 10 hectares also took loan from non-

institutional agencies.38

As per the 55th round of NSS, Punjab farmers are third at the all India level in terms

of percentage of farmers under debt. In Andhra Pradesh, 82 percent farmers were under

debt, in Tamil Nadu 74.5 percent and in Punjab 65.4 percent. In terms of per farmer debt,

Punjab tops the all India list. It was 41,576 in 2003 in Punjab compared to Rs 33,907 in

Kerala and Rs 12,585 at the all India level.39 According to the Report of National Crime

Record Bureau between 1997 and 2000, more than 17000 farmers preferred death to life

on an average every year. Almost 50 farmers commit suicide every day in the country.40

According to a survey conducted by the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana

89 percent of the farmer households in state were under debt and 12.8 percent were those

who had very little option other than suicide. The total indebtedness of the farm sector

was estimated at Rs 21,064 crore in the early 2007.41

In general, the people become bankrupt when the loan exceeds more than two

years of a family income. About 13 percent indebted farm households were facing this

situation. These farmers have indebtedness of more than 200 percent of their income. The

survey observed that the indebted households were highest in the south-western region

followed by central region of Punjab. In the cotton belt all farm house hold groups are

highly indebted. The average debt of marginal and small farmers in this region was more

than the average debt of all farm categories in the semi hilly region and of the marginal

and small farmers in the central region. Farmers having tractors were more heavily

indebted. The case of marginal and small farmers with tractors was even worse.42

38 Report of the Expert Group on Agricultural Indebtedness, July, 2007, p. 64

39 Ibid, p. 59.

40 The Tribune, August 26, 2009.

41 The Tribune, April 7, 2007.

42 The Tribune, April 7, 2007


260

According to the recommendations of World Bank, a tractor must have 1200 hours to

work annually. A few number of tractors fulfilled this eligibility. The tractors became

status symbols for the small and the marginal farmers.43

Indebtedness has led to increasing numbers of suicides in Punjab. This has led to

the loss of more than 2,200 farmers who have reportedly committed suicide in the state,

causing a lot of agony to families which remain deprived of any relief measures.

According to the Government of Punjab, 2,116 farmers have committed suicide between

1988-2005.44 Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana has handed over a Report to the

Punjab Government in 2009. According to this Report 2,890 farmers and farm labourers

committed suicide during the past eight years in Bhatinda and Sangrur districts. Of a total

of 2,890 farmers who committed suicide in Punjab 1,133 were farm labourers, while

1,757 of them were farmers with loans working as the main triggering factor behind these

tragedies.45 Punjab is the second state of India after Maharashtra where a large number of

indebted farmers have committed suicides.46

A majority of Punjab farmers are “born in debt, live in debt and die in debt”,

commented Sir Malcolm Darling in his book Punjab Peasantry in Prosperity and Debt

about hundred years ago.47 The findings are as true for today as they were a century ago.

Crushed by the heavy load of debt, the helpless farmers are compelled to commit suicide

to escape the continuous circle of indebtedness. This is a near stagnation in agricultural

growth In Punjab. According to survey of a social organization, every thirty eight out of

hundred Punjabi farmers are ready to quit agriculture immediately, if given a chance of

alternate employment.48

43 The Punjabi Ajit, April 6, 2008.

44 The Punjabi Ajit, August 11, 2006.



47 Malcolm Darling, Punjab Peasantry in Prosperity and Debt, p.246

48 The Tribune, May 2, 2006.


261

III

WATER LOGGING

Water logging occurs, when an area’s water table rises to an extent that the soil pores in

the root zone of a crop become saturated, resulting in the restriction of the normal

circulation of air, decline in the level of oxygen and increase in the level of carbon

dioxide.49 Water Board defined water logging as when land gets water logged and the

water table is within two meters.50 The Green Revolution demanded the expansion and

intensification of irrigation at two levels. Firstly, the shift in crop pattern in favour of

paddy-wheat instead of millets and oilseeds increased the demand for water inputs

throughout the year. Secondly, the use of new varieties of wheat and rice in place of old

varieties increased the intensity of irrigation, which rose from 20-30 percent to 200-300

percent.51 Excessive utilization of water, mainly for rice, has caused water logging.

According to many economists, the populist policies of the Punjab Government such as

free power and now highly subsidized water has compounded the problem.52 A major

cause of water logging however is inadequate drainage system. The Indus plain has

slight slope, so the surplus water easily accumulates during monsoon floodings.53 Water

logging destabilized water cycle by adding more water to an ecosystem than the natural

drainage potential of it. This has led to desertification and salinisation of the land.54

Water logging has effected the yields of different crops in different ways.

According to the Report of National Commission, area affected by water logging in 1976

49 Report of the National Commission on Agriculture of India, 1976, Vol. V, pp. 179-180.

50 Kanchan Chopra, Agricultural Development in Punjab : Issues in Resource Use and

Sustainability, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1990, p.21. Also see, G.K. Zeda, “Some

Observations on the Performance of Crops Under Water Logged Conditions, Periodical

Fluctuations in Water-Table and Efficiency of Cropping Pattern, India”, Central Board of

Irrigation and Power, Symposium on Water Logging-Causes and Measures for its Prevention, Vol.

I, p. 152.

51 Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution, p.125

52 K. Venkatasubramanian, “Future Development of Agriculture in Punjab”, in S.S. Johl & S.K.

Ray (eds.) Future of Agriculture in Punjab. p.12

53 Holly Sims, Political Regimes, Public Policy and Economic Development : Agricultural

Performance and Rural change in Two Punjabs, p. 87.

54 Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution, p.128.


262

in India was near 14.8 million acres of which 2.7 millions acres were in Punjab.55 The

South-Western region of Punjab comprising of Mansa, Bathinda, Faridkot and Ferozpur

are facing the problem of water logging at a large scale. The water table of this area is

rising at the rate of 0.5 to 1 meter per year.56 6.3 lakh hectares of this region is

experiencing the problem of rising water table whereas 3.4 lakh hectares of this region

has an annual rise of more than 33 cms.57

Changing crop patterns, aridity and use of poor quality water for irrigation

purposes and canal seepage from both the Rajasthan feeder and Sirhind canal had

compounded the problem of water logging in Muktsar District. It was reported that the

water table in all the four blocks of this district, Muktsar , Gidderbaha, Lambi and Malout

was alarmingly high. The water table is now just one meter from the surface in the

villages and this rises virtually to the surface during the monsoons causing serious

damage to crop.58 Malout almost faced flood like situation during 1990s. Many more

problems related to over-watering have risen. With the rise of water table in the South-

Western Punjab, the cultivators have now taken to rice cultivation. At present 69 percent

of this region is irrigated by canals and 31 percent through tube wells. But as the rice

cultivation needs more water, the farmers are demanding more canal water because the

underground water in this area is brackish, which is unfit for the irrigation puposes.59

Water logging has ruined the fertility of land. The quality of ground water is

different from place to place and location to location in the south-west Punjab. The

55 Report of the National Commission on Agriculture of India, 1976, Part V, p.224.

56 R.D. Gupta, G Mahajan & B.R. Goyal, “Availability and Quality of Ground Water in Punjab

State”, In Proceedings of Symposium on Water Management, pp. 18-42. Also see, Bhupinder

Singh Kolar & N.S. Butter, “Priorities of Punjab Agriculture”, Progressive Farming, March, 2000,

p.7.

57 P.S.Rangi & M.S. Sidhu, “Problems and Prospects of Agriculture in Punjab”, in R.S. Bawa &

P.S. Raikhy (eds.) : Punjab Economy : Emerging Issues, p.14.

58 The Tribune, July 21, 2009.

59 G.S. Hira,, S.S. Thind and V.V.N. Murthy, “An Appraisal of Water Logging and Drainage

Problems in South-West Parts of Punjab”, National Symposium on Drainage and Water Logged

and Salt affected Lands, held at Karnal, 11- 13 February l, 1985, p. 7; Jaspinder Singh Kolar &

N.S. Butter, “Priorities of Punjab Agriculture”, Progressive Farming, March, 2000, p. 6 and

Anjali Mehra & P.S. Raikhy, “Sustainability of Punjab Agriculture” an Analysis in R.S. Bawa,

P.S. Raikhy and Paramjit Kaur (eds.), Issue in Agriculture and Small Scale Industries, p.145


263

variations in the ground water quality is to such an extent that even in the same village,

zones of fit, marginal and unfit water categories can be found.60 A marginal type of well

water gives 200-400 kgs salt per hectare during one season.61

A typical example of water logging resulting from the shift in cropping pattern is in

Tapa Khera village of Lambi Block in the Muktsar district. The continuous cultivation of

paddy crop has made its 25 hectares of land unfit for cultivation because paddy crops demand

24-32 irrigations within four months.62 The water logging problem of the south-western

Punjab also affected the cropping pattern of this region. It replaced the cotton by paddy

which was the principal kharif crop of this region at a very fast rate.63 The increased water

logging not only effected the cotton crop of this region but the stagnation of water for long

time increased the humidity of the environment. It has increased insect/pest damage to such a

serious proportions that they are normally not controlled with recommended insecticide

sprays.64 Intensive irrigation has developed conflicts between private and social interests.

Water logging does not recognize farm boundaries and drainage cannot be managed without

the help of community activity. Jawahar Lal Nehru had rightly warned that “water logging is

a dangerous development which might ruin the Punjab if not adequately dealt forth with”.65

DESTRUCTION OF SOIL FERTILITY

The wheat-paddy rotation is responsible for over exploiting the most important

natural resources i.e. soil and water in Punjab. The organic content of the soil of the state has

gone down from 0.5 to 0.2 percent.66 After a few years of bumper production of paddy-wheat,

60 G.S. Hira, S.S. Thind & V.V.N. Murthy, “Irrigation Water Quantity, Management in Punjab”,

Deptt. of Soil & Water Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 1985, p. 60. Also

see, G.S. Hira, S.S. Thind & V.V.N. Murthy, “An Appraisal and Drainage Problems in South-West

Part of Punjab” National Symposium Drainage and Waterlogged and Salt Affected Land, p. 7.

61 G.S. Dhaliwal & V.K. Dilwari, “Impact of Green Revolution on Environment”, p.191.

62 P.S.Rangi & M.S. Sidhu, “Problems and Prospects of Agriculture in Punjab” in R.S. Bawa & P.S.

Raikhy (eds.) : Punjab Economy : Emerging Issues, p.15.

63 Sukhpal Singh, “Farming Crisis and farmer Suicides in Punjab : An Examination of Institutional

Dimensions”. In Balbir Singh (ed.), Punjab Economy : Challenges and Strategies, p. 25.

64 Joginder Singh, G.S. Dhaliwal & N.S. Randhawa, “Changing Scenario of Punjab Agriculture : An

Ecological Perspective“ Proceedings of International Conference on Ecological Agriculture :

Towards Sustainable Development, p. 76 and Anjali Mehra and P.S. Raikhy, “Sustainability of

Punjab’s Agriculture : An Analysis “ in R.S. Bawa, P.S. Raikhy & Paramjit Kaur Dhindsa, Issues

in Agriculture and Small Scale Industry, p.145.

65 Holly Sims, “Political Regions, Public Policy and Economic Development”, p. 89.

66 Economic Survey of Punjab, 2002-03, p. 50. Also see G.S. Kalikat, “Punjab Agriculture at the

Cross Roads”, Progressive Farming, March, 2000, p. 4.


264

crop failures have been visualized at a large number areas of Punjab due to diseased soil.67

The Green Revolution would not have been successful without the tremendous

increase in the fertilizer application. The new high yielding seed varieties were highly

responsive to fertilizer input. It is estimated that 50 to 60 percent increase in productivity is

contributed by this factor.68 Punjab has 2.98 percent of cultivated area and 4.2 percent of

cropped area but accounts for about 8 percent of total chemical fertilizer consumption of the

country.69 Punjab shows a continuous increase in the use of chemical fertilizers from 5

thousand tones in 1960-61 to 1553 thousand tones during 2004-05.70 It uses 184 kgs of

chemical fertilizers per hectare.71

Excessive and unbalanced use of chemical fertilizers have given rise to serious

problems. Nitrogen applications tend to be too high in relation to the amount of Potassium

and Phosphorous used. This is partly the result of price differences and partly due to lack of

knowledge among farmers about the need for balanced fertilizers use. The consequence is

soil nutrient depletion which is the major cause of the stagnation of rice yields.72

Punjab used only 1.1 kgs of the chemical fertilizers per hectare cropped area against

the 1.92 kgs at national level during 1960-61. The consumption of chemical fertilizers

increased rapidly in the Green Revolution period. It increased to 162.7 kgs per hectare

cropped area against the 67.55 kgs at national level during 1990-91. Punjab used only 5

thousand metric tones of NPK in 1960-61 which increased to 1,220 thousand metric tones in

1990-91.73 About 1,005 thousand tones of nitrogen, 287 thousand tones of phosphorus and

67 Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution, p. 114.

68 Report of the Expert Group on Agricultural Indebtedness. pp. 19-20. Also see, J.S. Kanwar & G.S.

Sekhon, “Nutrient Management of Sustainable Intensive Agriculture,” in Proceedings of Third

Agricultural Science Congress, Vol. I, National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi,

1997, pp. 77-101 and Joginder Singh, G.S. Dhaliwal & N.S. Randhawa, “Changing Scenario of

Punjab Agriculture : An Ecological Perspective”, p. 81.



th June, 2005, New Delhi. .Also see, Joginder

Singh and D.K. Grover, “Environmental Issues and Policy Options in the Agrarian Economy of

Indian Punjab”, in R.S. Bawa & P.S. Raikhy (eds.), Punjab Economy : Emerging Issues, p. 168

and G.S. Dhaliwal, Joginder Singh & N.S. Randhawa, “Changing Scenario of Punjab Agriculture :

An Ecological Perspective, p. 81.

70 Statistical Abstract of Punjab, 2004, p. 215.

71 Punjab Development Report , 2002, p. V.

72 Report of the Expert Group on Agricultural Indebtedness, July, 2007, pp. 19-20.

73 Statistical Abstract of Punjab, 2004, p. 215.


265

22 thousand tones of potassium is being added to the soil annually.74 On the other side,

organic carbon in the soil which determines the availability of nitrogen has been reduced to a

very inadequate level, because of very low application of organic manure. As a result, the soil

has become deficit in nitrogen.75 Between 1950-1960, the soil of Punjab was deficient only in

nitrogen, but with the adoption of the new agricultural strategy, it is short of all other micro

and macro nutrients like Potassium, Zinc and Phosphorous.76 During the eighties, the

deficiency of Manganese and Sulfur were also visualized. In the era of nineties, the soil

became poor in Copper and other nutrients also.

Soil Deficiency in Punjab During Various Decades

Decades Deficiency of

During 1950s Nitrogen

During 1960s Nitrogen

During 1970s Nitrogen + Potash + zinc + Phosphorus

During 1980s Nitrogen+ Potash + zinc + Phosphorus + Manganese + Sulfur

During 1990s Nitrogen + Potash + zinc + Phosphorus + Manganese + Sulfur +Copper

After 2000 Nitrogen + Potash + zinc + Phosphorus + Manganese + Sulfur +Copper

Source – Report of Department of Soils, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.77

The cropping pattern of land is responsible for the degradation of soil. The paddy-

wheat cropping pattern in Punjab resulted in a break in the re-cycling of nutrient in two

ways. The dwarf seed varieties led to reduction of organic material available for re-

cycling into soil. This increased the grain yield at the cost of straw. The traditional rice

varieties had four to five times as much straw as grain. High yielding rice produced a one

to one ratio of grain to straw. The scarcity in straw ultimately reduced biomass

availability for fodder and mulch. This resulted in a break in nutrient re-cycling.

Secondly, it demanded higher nutrients which caused toxic chemicals in the soil and

74 Joginder Singh and D.K Grover, “Environmental Issues and Policy Options of the Agrarian

Economy & Indian Punjab”, in R.S. Bawa & P.S. Raikhy (eds.), Punjab Economy : Emerging

Issues, p. 168.

75 R.S. Sidhu & S.S. Johal, “Three Decades of Intensive Agriculture in Punjab”, in S.S. Johl and

S.K. Ray (eds.), Future of Agriculture in Punjab, p. 33.

76 M.S. Toor, Sukhpal Singh & Inderpreet Kaur, “Detrimental Effects of Agricultural Development

Model of Punjab”, in Balbir Singh ed.), Punjab Economy : Challenges and Strategies, pp. 308-

309.

77 Report of Department of Soils, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana cited in M.S. Toor,

Sukhpal Singh & Inderpreet Kaur, “Detrimental Effects of Agricultural Development Model of

Punjab”, in Balbir Singh ed.), Punjab Economy : Challenges and Strategies, pp. 308-309.


266

micronutrient deficiencies.78

Removal of nutrients by crop plants has increased with the advent of Green

Revolution. For an average productivity of 6 tones of rice and 4 tones of wheat per

hectare, it is estimated that nutrient absorption is 634 kgs. It consists of 22 kgs Nitrogen,

102 kgs Phosphorus and 312 kgs Potash.79 Moreover, the standing and burning of paddy

straw restrict the aerobic activities in the soil. The peddling of field for paddy has

disturbed soil texture and structure. As a result, in the traditional paddy growing areas,

there is decline in the growth of productivity not only of rice but also of other crops. On

the whole, we can say that chemical fertilizers have contributed to the erosion of food

quality through the pollution of the land, water and the atmosphere.

HIGH USE OF PESTICIDES, INSECTICIDES AND WEEDICIDES

With the introduction of high yielding dwarf rice and wheat varieties, the problem of

weeds, diseases and insect-pests has also increased. The increased cropping intensity, wheat-

rice rotation, higher use of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation have made the pest problem

more and more complicated. Some of the minor pests have become major and several major

pests have developed the resistance power against commonly used pesticides.80

Before the inception of Green Revolution, Indigenous varieties were resistant to

local pests and diseases. Even if the crop was affected by certain diseases, it affected

some parts of the crop, while others will have the resistance to survive. Crop rotations

also helped in pest control. Many pests were specific to particular plants. Planning crops

in different seasons and different years reduced the pest population in large scale. After

78 M.K. Chaudhary & D.R. Aneja, “Impact of Green Revolution on Long-Term Sustainability of

Land and Water Resources in Haryana”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 46, No.

3., July-September, 1991, pp. 428-429. Also see, Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green

Revolution, pp. 110-111 and Khem Singh Gill, A Growing Agricultural Economy : Technological

Changes, Constraints and Sustainability, p. 293.

79 M.K. Chaudhary & D.R. Aneja, “Impact of Green Revolution on Long-Term Sustainability of

Land and Water Resources in Haryana”, p. 429.

80 Bhupinder Singh Kolar & N.S. Butter, “Priorities of Punjab Agriculture” Progressive Farming,

March, 2000, p. 8. Also see, G.S. Dhaliwal & Arora, “Changing Status of Insect-Pests and their

Management Strategies”, in K.S. Gill, G.S. Dhaliwal, B.S. Hansra (eds.), Changing Scenario of

Indian Agriculture, Common Wealth Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 98-145. and Joginder Singh, G.S.

Dhaliwal and N.S. Randhawa, “Changing Scenario of Punjab Agriculture : An Ecological

Perspective”, p. 84.


267

the Green Revolution, planting the same crop over large area year after year has

encouraged the new generation of pests and insects also.81

The rice crop was considered to be comparatively free from insects/pests before the

Green Revolution. The rice cultivation in Punjab is now affected by near about 4 insects

and 12 diseases. The rice leaf folder was first recorded in minor area in 1964. In 1967 it

had appeared in epidemic form in Kapurthala. Now, it prevail in all rice growing areas of

the Punjab and had caused heavy losses in 1983. The yellow stem borer, white backed

plant hopper, green leaf hopper, rice thrips are the new pests- insects created by the

Green Revolution.82 Among the diseases to which the rice cultivation is affected are

brown spot, false smut and sheath rot. The new high yielding dwarf seed varieties of

wheat have turned minor diseases such as Karnal Bunt into epidemic form. Other

diseases like Leaf Rust, Loose Smut, Stripe Rust has affected the new wheat varieties

such as PV 18, Kalyan 227, Sonara 64 and Leema Royo.83 The weeds have also created a

serious threat to paddy-wheat rotation in the Punjab. An increase in the cropping

intensity, use of fertilizers and intensive irrigation have changed the ecological balance in

favour of weeds. They appear in flushes and many weeds are very similar to the crop

plants. With the large scale cultivation of wheat and rice in the Punjab, it is very difficult

to control weeds manually.84

The problem of insect-pest attack and weeds have assumed dangerous proportions.

India has suffered loss of about Rs. 5,000 crore worth of agriculture production due to

various pests. Weeds are alone responsible for about 45 percent of the total loss.85 The

use of various product protection chemical have increased in Punjab. The consumption of

81 Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution, p. 93.

82 Joginder Singh, G.S. Dhaliwal and N.S. Randhawa, “Changing Scenario of Punjab Agriculture : An

Ecological Perspective”, p.84 and Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution, pp. 97-98.

83 Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution, p. 98 and S.S. Sokhi, P.P. Singh and R.K.

Grewal, “Disease Scenario of Crops in Modern Agriculture “, in G.S. Dhaliwal, .S. Hasra

and . Jerath (eds.), Changing Scenario of our Environment, Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana 1992, pp. 261-270. Also see, R.S. Sidhu & S.S. Johl, ”Three Decades of Intensive

Agriculture in Punjab : Socio Economic & Environmental Consequences”, p. 36.

84 Khem Singh Gill, A Growing Agricultural Economy : Technological Economy : Technological

Changes, Constraints and Sustainability, pp. 277-278

85 Ibid, pp. 278-279. Also see, Joginder Singh, G.S. Dhaliwal & N.S. Randhawa, “Changing

Scenario of Punjab Agriculture : An Ecological Perspective”, p. 86.


268

insecticide and pesticides has increased from 624 tones during 1960-61 to 6,900 tones in

2003-04. The per hectare use of chemical in technical grade has increased from 0.132 kgs

to 0.873 kgs during the same period. The use of weedicides has also increased. Punjab

accounts for 60 percent of the total weedicides consumption in India. More than 90

percent growers of rice and wheat use weedicides. Punjab has 2.5 percent agricultural

area of the India but use 18 percent of pesticides.86

The consumption of insecticides and pesticides in Punjab during the years is given

as under :-

Year Insecticides/Pesticides

Consumption in tones)

Technical Grade (Kgs/Hectare)

Punjab India

1960-61 624 0.132 0.056

1970-71 2215 0.390 0.147

1980-81 3200 0.473 0.317

1990-91 6500 0.867 0.404

2000-01 7005 0.883 0.230

2002-03 6400 0.818 Not Available

2003-04 6900 0.873 0.570 Source - Statistical Abstract of Punjab, various issues cited in M.S. Toor, Sukhpal Singh & Inderpreet

Kaur, “Detrimental Effects of Agricultural Development Model of Punjab”.87

Most of the pesticides whose use is restricted or banned in developed countries are

dumped into the developing countries like India. The liberal and continual use of

pesticides has disturbing implications on the agriculture. Plants have developed resistance

to pesticides and insecticides. There is continual resurgence of insect-pest and declined

the strength of the natural enemies of the pests.88 Pesticides are being found in food

grains, vegetables, drinking water, buffalo milk and other edible stuff. It has also led to

contamination of soil as well as food commodities, which caused abnormalities and even

cancer.89

86 The Punjab Kesari, January 7, 2009.

87 Statistical Abstract of Punjab, various issues cited in M.S. Toor, Sukhpal Singh & Inderpreet

Kaur, “Detrimental Effects of Agricultural Development Model of Punjab”, p. 310.

88 Anjali Mehra and P.S. Raikhy, “Sustainability of Punjab Agriculture : An Analysis”, p.146..

89 The Tribune, January 13, 2008.


269

Pesticide residue commonly detected in different food and food commodities in

Punjab is as follows :-

S.No Substance Pesticides Detected

1. Milk DDT and HCH

2. Cereals DDT and HCH

3. Vegetables Endosulfan, Chalorpyripho, Quinalphos,

Monocrotophos, Methylparathion, Cypermethrin.

4. Fruits Endasalfan, Malthion, Dimethoate.

5. Cotton Seed and Lint Endolfan, Fenitriothion, Quinalphos, Fenvolerate,

Cypermethrin, Delamethrin, Alphamethrin.

6. Animal Feed & Fodder DDT,HCH, Malathion, Endosulfan, Dicafol. Source - Report of Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhana.

90

The worst hit is Malwa belt with Muktsar and Bhatinda reporting the maximum

incidence of cancer at 75 patients per one lakh population, more than double the state

average. The state average is 31 cases per lakh of population.91 According to a study

conducted by the Punjab Pollution Control Board & Post Graduate Institute of Medical

Science and Research, Chandigarh, excessive use of pesticides in the rural area was

responsible for the increase in cancer cases in the cotton belt of Bhatinda District.92 Near

about 100 cancer patients are going daily by train for treatment at Acharya Tulsi Khetri

Cancer Treatment and Resource Hospital in Bikaner. This train covers the distance of 350

kms from Abohar to Bikaner and now this train is being called as Cancer Train.93

Alarmed by the preliminary findings of the first house to house survey of cancer

cases in Punjab, the Central Government has decided to allow the states proposal for

setting up a Population Based Cancer Registry (PBCR) to monitor the actual cancer

burden over a period of time and between regions. It is to be set up in Bhatinda, the area

with highest incidence of cancer cases in Punjab. The PBCR’s role would alsobe to find

suitable treatment facilities. Cancer, which was earlier confined to the Malwa belt, is now

90 Report of Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhana cited in M.S.

Toor, Sukhpal Singh and Inderpreet Kaur, “Detrimental Effects of Agricultural Development

Model of Punjab”, in Balbir Singh (ed.), Punjab Economy : Challenges and Strategies, p. 313.

91 The Tribune, March 26, 2010.

92 Vikas Kahol, “100 Cancer Deaths in Eight Months and Still Continuing”, The Indian Express,

June 5, 2005 and M.S. Toor, Sukhpal Singh & Inderpreet Kaur, “Detrimental Effects of

Agricultural Development Model of Punjab”, in Balbir Singh (ed.), Punjab Economy : Challenges

and Strategies, p. 311.

93 The Ajit, March 10, 2011.


270

being detected among a large number of people in Majha and Doaba regions also.94

In Majha belt, Arsenic contents have been found in underground water at many

places in Gurdaspur district while iron contents are found in Pathankot area.

Underground water in Pathankot belt also contain abundance quantity of dissolved

solid.95 It is a matter of great concern that existing farming system is becoming a major

threat for human and environmental health of Punjab. It was found that food grains were

contaminated with DDT and HCH residues at level commonly rising from 4 ppm96 which

was above the recommended maximum residue limit of 0.1 ppm.97

About 80,000 species have been identified as edible. Till some time in the past it

had been using only about 900 species. More recently this has shrunk to very few with

10-15 species contributing to over 5 percent. The narrowing food basket is threatening

the genetic resources and human nutrition highly skewed with attendant dangers. In 2004,

international union for conservation of nature and natural resources estimated 15,589

species as threatened. In India, about 17,000 vascular plant species including 112 taxa of

medicinal plant and 172 species of animals are threatened.98

THE NEW CROPPING PATTERN AND THE DESTRUCTION OF GENETIC

DIVERSITY

The cropping pattern in the Punjab has witnessed a distinct shift in favour of

paddy-wheat rotation. The proportion of cropped area allocated to cereals increased from

50 percent in 1960-61 to 88.88 percent during 2004-05. The area under oil seeds and

sugarcane decreased over this period. The area under cotton declined slightly during this

period. However, there is notable decline in the proportion of area allocated to pulses

from 13 percent in 1960-61 to 0.51 percent in 2004-05. The shift in cropping pattern has

created serious imbalances in the farm production pattern as well as several related

problems on production marketing and input supply fronts.99



96 ppm stands for part.(s) per million.

97 Anjali Mehra and P.S. Raikhy, “Sustainability of Punjab Agriculture : An Analysis”, p. 146.

98 S. Bala Ravi, “Biodiversity and Food Security”, Yojana, August, 2006, pp. 69-70.

99 Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution, pp. 70-71 and Joginder Singh, G.S. Dhaliwal

and .M.S. Randhawa, “Changing Scenario of Punjab Agriculture : An Ecological Perspective”, p. 74.


271

The details of shifting of cropping pattern in Punjab, (1960-61 to 2004-05) is as under:-

Year Cereals Pulse Oilseed Sugarcane Potato Cotton

Miscellaneous

(fruits, Veg,

fodder etc.)

1960-61 50.00 13.4 6.2 3.0 0.3 8.4 17.9

1970-71 61.90 6.7 6.6 3.0 0.8 8.5 11.7

1981-82 67.50 4.7 3.2 1.5 0.5 9.9 12.7

1986-87 73.50 2.9 3.0 1.1 0.6 7.8 11.1

1990-91 73.60 1.9 1.5 1.3 0.3 9.3 12.1

1994-95 75.80 1.2 2.0 1.0 0.4 7.9 11.7

1995-96 72.60 1.3 3.0 1.8 0.5 9.6 11.2

1996-97 71.70 1.3 3.2 2.2 0.6 9.5 11.5

1997-98 73.90 1.1 2.5 1.6 0.7 9.2 11.1

1999-2000 77.80 0.9 2.1 1.3 1.0 7.3 9.6

2000-01 78.00 0.8 1.3 1.4 1.0 6.1 11.4

2001-02 78.40 0.7 1.1 1.5 0.8 6.0 11.5

2003-04 77.83 0.52 1.26 1.97 0.86 5.75 11.81

2004-05 88.88 0.51 1.27 0.12 0.96 7.17 10.9 Source- Statistical Abstract of Punjab.

100

Pulses and oilseeds were the dominant group of crops before the advent of Green

Revolution. Pulses lost their importance over time in the cropping pattern. Their area

decreased to 1.1 percent in 1997-98. In the same way, oil seeds crops been marginalized

in the state and their area has declined from 6.2 percent in 1960-61 to 2.5 percent in

1997-98. As a result, there has been undue pressure on the prices of pulses and

dependence on the import of oilseeds.

Cultivation of pulses and cereals are essential for the balanced diet as well as eco-

system. The protein value of pulses and the calorie value of cereals are both required for

a balanced diet. One cannot replace them in any way. Similarly, the Nitrogen fixing

capacity of pulses and their deep root is an invisible ecological contribution to the yield

of associated cereals. The leguminous crops formed an important work of cropping

system before the Green Revolution.101

As a result of shift in cropping pattern, the biodiversity has undergone a rapid

change. The Green Revolution has been responsible for the displacement of genetic

100 Statistical Abstract of Punjab cited in V.K. Sharma, Sukhpal Singh & H.S. Kingra, “Changing

Structure of Land Use Pattern in Punjab,” in Balbir Singh (ed.), Punjab Economy ; Challenges

and Strategy, p. 298.

101 Joginder Singh, G.S. Dhaliwal and N.S. Randhawa, “Changing Scenario of Punjab Agriculture :

An Ecological Perspective”, p.74. Also see, Michael Perelman, “The Green Revolution :

American Agriculture in the Third World”, in Richard Merrill (eds.), Radical Agriculture, Harper

& Row Publishers, New York, 1996, pp. 117-118.


272

diversity in two ways. Firstly, mixtures and rotation of different crops like wheat, maize,

millets, pulses and oil seeds were replaced by the wheat and rice cropping pattern.

Secondly, the new rice and wheat varieties reproduced over large scale as it came from a

very narrow genetic base compared to the high genetic variability in the populations of

traditional wheat or rice plants.102

The miracle varieties of Green Revolution displaced the diversity of traditionally

crops and through the erosion of diversity, the new seeds became a mechanism for

introducing new pests.103 A number of crops like tobacco have completely vanished.

104

As a result of Green Revolution, net sown area has increased to near about 84 percent.

After reorganization of Punjab, 1,872 sq kms of forest land came to the share of Indian

Punjab. It was only 3.72 percent of geographical area of the state. Accordingly, the

National Forest Policy of 1952 and 1988 remaked that for the proper maintenance of

balance of nature and to meet the needs of development, 60 percent of the total area in

hills and 20 percent in the plains should be under forest.105 But Punjab’s percentage of

land under forest cover remains far below the overall national norm of 33 percent. The

forest cover in the state is 6.05 percent of its total area, as against the national average of

19.4 percent.106

After achieving remarkable success in food production, Punjab economy is

passing through the phase of severe economic and ecological crisis. The water table has

gone down. Pest problem is still persisting. Soil fertility is deteriorating. A number of

health hazards have been identified. Income of the farmers is declining. They are highly

indebted and committing suicides. For solving the environmental problems of the Punjab,

the agricultural experts have suggested that at least 20 percent area under paddy must be

diverted to other crops. The Government need to take drastic steps to save both the

agriculture and the ecology of Punjab.


An Ecological Perspective”, p.90 and Vandana Shiva, The Violence of Green Revolution, p. 81

103 Vandana Shiva, The Violence of Green Revolution, p. 83.


An Ecological Perspective”, p.90


An Ecological Perspective”, p. 68.

106 Punjab Development Report, 2002, p. 4.

CHAPTER – VI CRISIS OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION

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