CHAPTER - V ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURE, the science...

CHAPTER - V

ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE, the science of constructions with a hoary past

is datable to Chalcolithic period. Revealed through the plans and struc

tural remains, the antianity of Indian Architecture goes back to the disco

veries made in the excavations conducted on the Indus sites. Classifiable

into Civil, Military and Ecclesiastical schools, the main function of archi

tecture is accommodative and protective with the tinge of aesthetics,

through artistic representations, in any of its forms.

CIVIL ARCHITECTURE is divisible into Tenaments, Storeyed Buildings,

Palaces and Facades, built for the commoners, income groups, aristocrates

and kingly harems; the objective of which is purely residential.

MILITARY ARCHITECTURE AIMS AT THE Defence of the Kingdom,

represented through fortifications, where the King with his political

and military retinue resides. Forts, the nucleus of Military Architecture

are classifiable into Sthala Durga (the Land Fort), Giri Durga (the Hill

Fort), Vana Durga (the Forest Fort), Jala Durga (the Fort either in

the Midst of Waters or on the River Banks) and the like (SII-VI-248;

SII-X-554, 559).

ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE symbolises the philosophy of the

Faith, for which the Citadel of Worship is constructed. The History

of Religious Architecture is as early as man's recognition of the Elements

of Nature, to be more powerful than Man himself. In the beginning

it was praying in silence in appreciation of these Elements. Later, the

same have been transformed into cults of power, represented through

the seals of Mother Goddess and Swastica, found in the excavations,

all over the world. These prayers, in course of time, have been

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channelised into different Practices of Worship, in the forms of Religious

Rites and Rituals, preserved in the tribal communities and societies.

Further, as time progressed, these Elements were given Zoomorphlc and

Anthropomorphic forms in addition to Tree Worship and slowly abodes

were constructed for placing these Images, to be the nucleus of worship.

In the further progress of Civilization many schools nf religious

thought were born with permutations and combinations of existing philoso

phies and accordingly multiple styles were adopted for construction of

the abodes of worship, till date. However, the basic feature of religious

architecture remained to be Pyramidal, since beginnings.

India, with its unbroken chain of religio-cultural continuity since

the dawn of civilisation has been maintaining the tradition of construction

of abodes for the Cosmic Man in multiple Forms, for those blossommed

on this soil and inroaded into India.

Andhra Desa, the true representative of the Indian soul, has patronised

many religions and philosophies. Centres of Worship have been constructed

with equal zeal for each of the sects of the faith, following different

traditions of architecture. One such earliest example is the Buddlst

Maha Chaltya at Amaravatl, a mud construction in the beginning, renovated

by Asoka, the Mauryan Emperor, and the successive dynasties upto

fourteenth century AD by a Ceyloneese Buddhist Pilgrim. (AMR-ASI-1980).

SCHOOLS OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE IN ANDHRA DESA

In addition to the Buddhist architectural representations through

the Maha Chaityas and Viharas, the three major forms of Indian Temple

Architecture v iz ., Nagara. Vesara and Dravlda are found in Andhra Desa

(ITF-MAD-1977): for, the Telugu people were never isolated from the

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socio-political setup of northern regions and have safely digested the

cultural roots from the Ganga-Yamuna doab, though they being a part

of the Dravidian cultural order.

The codes of Indian Temple architecture such as MANASOLLASA,

SAMARANGANA SUTRADHARA, APARAJITA PRCCHA and the like refer the

temple building traditions of northern provinces to be Nagaira, extended

upto Krishna-Tungabhadra valley: Vesara, the tradition assigned to the

country between Vindhya and Agastya (Nasik) i .e . , prevalent in the

Deccan Plateau and Dravida, found in the regions beyond river Krishna,

upto Indian Ocean in the south.

Structurally, the temples, square or oblong on plan, from base

to finial, are classed under Nagara; those circular or elliptical, from

base to griva and stupi, or square below, and round above or apsidal

are called V ^ a r a : and those temples square, octogonal or hexagonal

from base to final, oblong atop, belong to Dravida system. (ITF-MAD-

1977 and HT-SK-1946).

Coastal Andhra and the double-deltic area under study, for a long

time, was a part of the administrative empires of Mauryas, Satavahanas,

Ikshwakus, Pallavas, Vishnukundins, Eastern Chalukyas, Imperial Cholas,

Kakateeyas and the local rulers. Temples, the Citadels of Worship have

been constructed during the reign period of the said dynasties. Following

is the detailed account of the history of Brahminical temple architecture

in the area under study:

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ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAHMINICAL ARCHITECTURE

IN i^DHRA DESA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO COASTAL ANDHRA AND

THE AREA UNDER STUDY

The antiquity of Brahminical temple architecture in Andhra Desa

(ASIAP-BRP-1980) begins with the Bodhlghara structures of pre-christian

era, noticed in the Amaravati sculptures, known to be Rukka (Vrksha)

Chaltyas. Shrines representing the hypaethral order, were raised, all

over India, in the Buddhist tradition: and coastal Andhra is no exception.

Added , temples of open-air type were also raised. The temple dedicated

to Lord Parasurameswara at Gudimallam (DESA-IKS-1982) in Chittoor District

is considered to be the earliest temple structure in Andhra Desa. It

/originally had an image of Lord Siva in the anthropomorphic (Linga-with

Man) form, set in a circular Yonlpeetha, enclosed by a square railing

of lime stones, consisting of horizontal slabs with vertical uprights

and the medallions carved on them, resembling the railings at Amaravati

and Sanchi. Further, after a lapse of about four centuries, in second

century AD, an apsidal brick structure was raised at the same place,

enshrining the image, confirming the popularity of the Brahminical struc

tures, in the apsidal form.

SCULPTURAL REFERENCES (Fig.l to 5)

References to the art of temple architecture are found earlier in

the Sculptural representation as a preface to constructions in stone.

The Storeyed Structure form, found in the Ghantaslla Plaque (Fig. 4),

datable to first/second centuries AD, seems to be the earliest form of

temple Vlmina. It is a double storeyed superstructure, decorated with

blind doors and kutas crowned by an octagonal dome, together with a

stupi, are clearly depicted. There are five projected shrine-models.

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with a base for each, and a blind niche, topped by a tall chaitya arch,

with the interstices fashioned to be blind doors. Made to be proportiona

tely receeding, the second storey contains four shrine models, as in

the first storey. An octogonal pillar with an inverted-bell type member

and a stepped capital are carved in the interstices and in the later

spaces, respectively: with a couple of pillars at the centre. One shrine-

model, on each side, is carved on the top storey and with a pyramidal

supersturcutre depicted in the middle. The interstices contain blind

windows and the octogonal dome is topped by a stupi.

Further, a two-storeyed shrine model is noticed in a panel from

Jaggayyapet&(Fig.3) in which the Chaitya arches are depicted, on either

side of the blind window, in the superstructure, over the first storey.

The top storey is designed after an oblong roof of the Gajaprshta type.

An ivory seal (Plate 1), found in the excavations at Dharamkota,

datable to the first century BC /AD , depicts a structure with a double

barred railing pattern, with a double storeyed structure. There are

two arched-doors in the lower storey and a kuta type dome crowns the

top storey. The importance of the seal is that it resembles the super

structure of a southern temple.

In addition to the said sculptural panels and the designs on the

seal, the whole gamut of Buddhist sculptures are studded with such

^ /representations, as Kudus, Salas, Gavakshas and Panjaras, common to

secular and religious architecture, as well. Thus, the square, rectangular,

circular, elliptical and apsidal plans of temple architecture are found

in the early Buddhist sculptural art of Andhra Desa.

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NUMISMATIC REFERENCES:

Prototypes of Temple Architecture are found on the Coins issued

by Political dynasties. A typical lead coin supposed to have been issued

by Satavahana Yajna Sri, datable to 175-200 AD, suggests the existence

of shrines with Balipeetha (the Seat for placing the sacrificial offerings),

Dhwajasthambha (the Flagpost), and Vahana (the Vehicle), which are not

noticed either in the miniature shrines represented in the base-relief or

in the Stupa complex, or in the shrines at Nagarjunakonda.

/

Majority of the Coins issued by Satavahanas depict arched chaityas

on the obverse and Ujjain and other symbols on the reverse. However,

the following details on the obverse of the Coin under study (F ig .6) are

unique: A figure ressembling the human head is placed on a three pronged

design. To the left of the head there is a tall pillar and to the right

is a square with a bull standing facing right having a small opening at

the bottom. The wavy line below the stepped structure suggests a River

or a Confluence. Prototypes of the bull occur in the early Sculptures

from Amaravati etc., and on the Seals of the copper plate grants of Salanka-

yanas. Interestingly the three pronged design is almost siimilar to the

' / — - Trident borne on the Head of Lord Siva-Pasupati figure from Mohenjodaro.

Thus, the arrangements on the coin under study are suggestive of a miniature

Shrine-model of Lord Siva, on the banks of a water-base. The existence

of ^Saivaite Temples and the Worship of Lord Siva is recorded in the

Gatha SaptaMti of Hala (1- 1,69; 7-100). datable earlier to second century

/

AD. The phenomenal feature of the coin is that the practice of showing

the divine Vehicle of the God enshrined along with the Flagpost is typically

ancient. The same, after centuries have been standardised in the architec

tural features of the later day temples. (BMGM-VII-4-1959-PRS-BTSITA).

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EPlGRAPmCAL REFERENCES

References to temple architecture and the related technical terms

are also found in the lithographic and copper plate grants. The Velpur

Inscription (EI-XXXV-P8) datable to second century AD, refers to the

erection of a Mantapaprasada, dedicated to Lord Bhutagrahaka. A Mantapa-

Prasada is defined to be a structure sans superstructure, walls supported

by pillars at regular intervals, interestices filled with stone-slabs or

bricks. Such structures, common during the Satavahana period, seem

to have continued until nineth century AD, in Andhra and Karnataka Desas.

The inscriptions of Ikshwaku times also refer the temples to be

Prasadas and Devakulas. The inscription dated to the first regnal

year of Ehuvala Cantamula (EI-XXXV-P.6) refers to the construction of

a Devakula and (s)thala dedicated to Bhagavat Nodaglswaraswamln, by

Bhlgavata, the female Officer-in-charge of the royal harem; Ratavasa,

the daughter of a banker, and by some others. Talavara Elisri, the

grandson of Senapati Anikki and son of Gandi an intense devotee of

God Kumara i .e . Skanda-Kartikeya, built a Prasada (Sarvadevadhlvasa)

t

dedicated to Lord Siva (EI-XXXIII-P.149), during the eleventh regnal

year of Ehuvala Cahtamula. Maharaja Kumara vfrapurushadatta, the son

of Hariti who is also a Mahasenapati, caused to be built a Devakula

and Dhwajasthainba for Bhagavat Mahadeva Pushpabhadraswamin, during

the sixteenth regnal year of Maharaja Ehuvala Cantamula. (EI-XXXIV-P.19).

CONCEPT OF A TEMPLE IN INDIAN THOUGHT

Indian Philosophy (IIP-D8C-1980) recognises the dual approach

to the concept of Upasana for visualising the Ultimate Truth and Reality

to be Saguimpasana and Nlrgumpasana i .e . offering of prayers through

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the Images formed on the mental plane and sans formation of any image,

respectively. Gum stands for quality or attributes, which means Visuali

sation of the supreme Lord in Some Form or the Other, to maintain concen

tration through an Objective Correlative in the process of Subjective

Approach.

Object worship, the rear side of subjective approach, demands

offering of prayers by means of an IMAGE. Temples, the Centres of

Worship of the Cosmic Man , located away from the water resources

are known to be Naishtikasthanas and those located at the acquatic sources

like river banks, lakes, confluences or even sea shores, as per the later

puranic concepts, are known to be Tirthakshetras. Images were installed

and Idols were consecrated at the centres in the geometrical designs drawn

for the said purpose, rooted through the belief in Tantric worship, as

early as Chalcolithic period. Thus, the sthana i .e . the ground prepared

is known to be a Kshetra a potent site, where the spirits dwelt and invo

ked. The sthana is also meant to place the pitha or base of the circular

form in a square Vaistumandala design, at the centre, seeming to be the

origin of a Brahminical temple. (DESA-IKS-1982).

MATSYAPURAt^A, (MP-Pt.VII-Ch.XIX) One of the eighteen great epics of

India, forming the literary sources for the study of ancient Indian Culture,

describes the possible forms of a Brahminical temple, built either of wood,

brick or stone or with all the three materials. Bricks symbolise the

body of the sacrifice, for brick making is identified with the process

of offering the self to the Lord. Brick, as a unit, is the carrier, the

clay is the structure and the fire is the life of the unit; thus symbolising

the sacrifier building his own sacrificial body. Detailed prescriptions

of maKjng a well backed brick are recorded in the Smrtis (HT-SK-1946).

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BRHAT-SAMHITA (BS-Lv-2) encourages the Vedic concept of acquisition of

religious merit, for the builder and his generations, the Life in Heavens,

after the final departure, saying;

"Let him, who wishes to enter the worlds, that are reached

by sacrificial offerings and the performance of religious obli

gations, build a temple to the Gods, by doing which he attains

both the results of sacrifices and the performance of religious

obligations". (M .P. cclii)

Thus, Temples, the Nuclei of Metaphysical activities, represented

through the Physical manifestations in the Brahminical concept, are built

with the fervor of devotion, motivated through introspection, to be an

act of offering pious liberty to the restless soul, joining the Supreme

Infinite at the end, not alone for the builder, but for the twenty one gene

rations of his ancestors, (SSTTA-NVM; CII-III-P.83).

Vastumandalas, the sacrificial altars in their vertical elevation, pro

gressed in Pyramidal structure, have been classified into as many as

twenty-forms, in the works like Brhat samhlta and Matsyapurara. Amongst

them Meru, Mandara and Kallasa are the first three, suggesting the names

of mountains, in the vertical order (BS-Lv-17f;MP-x-cclxix-28f).

To provide the corraborative evidence for the literary sources in

Vedic and Puranlc texts, the Andhras seems to have shouldered the tradi-

tions of building temples dedicated to ^aivism, since third century BC

to tenth century AD, for a period of twelve centuries, in a chronological

order, beginning with the temple dedicated to Lord Parasurameswara at

Gudimallam, and later giving place to Vaishnavaite structures. Following

is the brief, but detailed account of the temples, both extant and struc

tural, since beginnings, followed by a descriptive account of the twelve

temples dedicated to Lord Bhavanarayana, in the area under study:

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GUDIMALLAM

Gudimallam (DESA-IKS-1982) a tiny Village in the Chittoor district

has given birth to the earliest Brahminical temple, still living, since cons

truction, datable to third century BC, being renovated by many political

/ /dynasties, favoring Saivism. Excavations conducted by D r .I.K .Sarm a , revea

led the hoary antiquity of the temple dedicated to Lord Parasurameswara.

The prepared ground, meant for placing the images in the circular pithas

or bases in a square Vastumandala at the centre and the railing over the

ground prepared, the two ring-stones of the pitha, along with the image

of Lord Siva in the anthropomorphic form (Linga with Man), the suchis,

with carved medallions, the silver punch marked coins, found at the site,

belonging to the early Mauryan series - all studied together push the date

of temple back to third century BC. Further, an apsidal structure, made

of bricks, assignable to the early Satavahana period was built around the

extant Linga, adding a lime floor. However, no remarkable change is recor

ded either in the setup of the image, in the Linga form, or its base and

the railing. The brick walls reveal the battering position; and the basal

courses laid in a stepped fashion, belong to second Century AD. There

does not seem to be any addition to the temple, for a period of more than

six centuries. The renovation work taken up in the second half of the

nineth century continued upto the seventeenth century, during which the

present complex was added to the original, as attested by the epigraphical

references (EI-XI-p.222 to 242; EI-XVII-p.l to 7) and architectural features.

VEERi^URAM

Until recent past, it is believed that the structural remains, found

in the excavations at Nagarjunakonda, are the direct successors of the

architectural styles of the earliest temple at Gudimallam. Thanks to Birla

Archaeological and Research Institute, for proving that the cluster of nine

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temples found at VEERAPURAM. A TYPE SITE IN KURNOOL DISTRICT (1984)

to be mid-way between Gudimallam and Nagarjunakonda, from the perspective

of continuity of temple architecture studied through structural remains.

The brick structural remains found at Veerapuram, suggestive of an

earliest attempt to provide squariash or rectangular chambers for the sant-

cum are contrary to the belief that the origin of squarish shrines is

creditable to north Indian temples. The coins, belonging to a Maharathi

/King Siva Khada Hathi and King Khadadata of an unknown dynasty, found

at the site, suggest the circumstantial evidence that the temples might

have been caused by them or during their regnal period. (VTSK-BARI-1984).

A close examination of the plans of the nine temples suggest that

the shrines were built in three phases. In the first phase, a flooring

made of Cuddapah slabs is noticed over the foundation. The walls built

with three or four courses of bricks have retained the primitive feature

of raising the walls with an off-set, as noticed in temples 3 8 9. The

empty ring-stones and the passage round the sanctum, suggest that it is

a Saivaite shrine and the passage was ussed for circumambulatory purposes.

The pradakshimpatha, round the sanctum indicates the Origins of S^dhra

tradition in the temple architecture. The recepticle i .e . Kunda, used for

collecting the waters of holy bath given to the Lord, through the drains,

connecting with the main shrine, found in all the temples, seems to be

an architectural feature. Excepting one particular temple, facing east,

all the other temples face north, overlooking the river Krishna.

During the second phase, the temples were provided with two off

sets, as observed in the external brick walls, the precurssors of later

adhishthana. A high squarish pedestal, provided with a circular

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depression in the rear wall within the shrine, for installation of the Linga

/form of Lord Siva, suggests a direct approach into the sanctum sans any

parlkrama and features the nlrandhara tradition as found in the temple

N o .7.

Excluding the attempt to cluster two or three temples under one roof,

no major change is noticed in the construction during the third phase,

excepting the squarish form of Linga replaced by a cylindrical, providing

an arghya with a Varimarga, readjusting the entrance steps and the drains.

Thus, it is clear that sincere attempts were made in the first and

second centuries AD, to provide a stable home for prayers and worship

of the Lord, viewing the Formless God in a Sthula or Symbolic form.

The squarish Linga has been changed to be cylindrical and the squarish

pedestal into a circular ring, with a projected water out-let termed to

be an Arghya with a VaHmarga. The temples facing north and east in

the earlier stages, were facing the other directions also, by the time the

deities were grouped. Enclosure walls, provided for security measures,

were after the practices of human inhabitations, forming the basis for the

/prakara walls, clustering the temples. Saivism, represented through the

worship of Lord Siva, in the forms, of Linga, Skanda and Ganesh, is well

established under a common roof. In course of time, the same practice

has helped in constructing the sub-shrines for parivara devatas alongwith

the shrine proper in the temple complex. (VTSK-BARI-1984).

NAG^UNAKONDA

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Considering the Parasurameswara Temple at Gudimallam and the remains

of the cluster of temples at Veerapuram, to be the earliest forms of Brah-

minical temple architecture in Andhra Desa, the remains of the temples

unearthed at Nagarjunakonda form an important chapter in the evolution

of temple architecture, in the area under study. The excavations conductd

at Veerapuram proved that the origins of squarish shrines is creditable

to Andhra Desa and the excavations conducted at Nagarjunakonda confirmed

the belief that the apsidal forms of temples are also of southern origin

(VTSK-BARI-1984). Thus, Andhras proved to be doyens of Brahminical

temple architecture in the squarish and apsidal forms as well.

Of the more than one dozen temples found at Nagarjunakonda (NGK -

ASI-1972) majority of them are dedicated to Saivism, the most favored

faith by the royalty in addition to different sects of Buddhism. The tem

ples, basically are Square, Apsidal, Oblong and Rectangular on plan. It

seems that the apsidal temples have maintained the widtti-length-helght

ratio, ranging from 1 :1 :4 to 1 :1 :8 . Brick was mainly used for the sanctum,

whereas lime-stone for pillared halls and cloisters. Pillars with a wide

rectangular notch, cut longitudinally, were used to receive wooden beams.

Roofs of the halls were laid using brick and mortar. Lime stone pillars,

along the apse, inside the apsidal form, were meant to support the struc

ture, as found in the Pushpabhadra Swamy Temple. Most of the temples

are found raised on elevated plinths, with a plain profile and walls.

Mantapas had flat roofs, the apsidal barrel vaulted roofs, and the square

storeyed superstructure (after the Ghantas^a relief) and the rectangular

and oblong (after the Jaggayyapeta relief) had the Wagon-topped roofs.

The Sarwadeva Temple, constructed by Elisiri, the C ommander-in-Chief

of Ehuvala Cantamula during his eleventh regnal year referred to be Mantapa

Praisada is a storeyed palatial temple. (E1-XXXIII-P.149).

The Pushpabhadraswamy Temple, built during the fourteenth regnal

year of Ehuvala Cantamula comprises an apsidal shrine, a detached mantapa,

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a flag-post, and a Pr&kara with gateways on all sides. The apsidal struc

ture does not seem to be having the plinth area. The walls are characteri

sed by stone pillars at regular intervals and the interstices are filled

with brick courses, veneered with stone slabs. The superstructure should

have been in an apsidal form built of bricks, with stucco work on the

exterior. There is a sixteen pillared mantapa, a little away from the

main shrine. Also there is a flag staff opposite the pillared hall, fixed

on a pedestal, with a notch atop, and a label inscription referring to the

God enshrined. (El-XXXIV, P. 19).

The Kartikeya Temple on plan consists of a square-shrine, a rectan

gular antarala and an 'L ' shaped mantapa with six rows of five pillars,

each.

The temple dedicated to Ashtabhuja Swamy dated 278 AD; consists

of an apsidal and oblong cellas, each possessing a pillared hall on the

front and rear sides, as well.

CHEJERLA

The next important temple in the chronological sequence is the

Kap5teswara Temple at Chejerla in Narasaraopet Tq , in Guntur District.

The temple described to be a Buddhist apsidal Chaitya, later said to have

/been appropriated by the Vedists into a Saivaite temple, consists of a

Gajai^rsthak^a Garbha grha, an antarala and a mukhamantapa, the last two

being later additions: and the square pillars in the Mukhamantapa, with

label inscriptions are datable to fourth/fifth centuries AD . SII-VI-593 to 601

However, the plinth area indicates an antarala and the mukhamantapa (added

later), with the Padabandha Adhishthina, showing the Tripattakumuda moul

ding with an Upana, Jagati and Pattika mouldings for the sanctum. Like

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the earliest temple at Gudimallam the temple at Chffrjerla is still a living

temple since its foundation, patronaged by various political dynasties, attes

ted by inscriptional evidence found at the site. (ITIHAS-III-1-1975; BTCGC-

TVGS).

KEESARAGUTTA

Although, the brick temple complex, found in the excavations at

Keesaragutta, in the Rangareddi District; does not include the temples in

the area under study; the structures are worth study, for they help in

understanding the continuity of Brahminical temple architecture in Sndhra

Desa. The temples of the complex were constructed during the Vishnukundin

rule and Keesaragutta being an one time capital of Vishnukundins.

/An early Saivaite Brick temple square on plan, with a square brick

pedestal at the centre, meant to instal a square Linga with a covered drain

on the north-east corner for conducting out the water used for sacred ablu

tions, is situated opposite the western gate-ways of the fort. The floor

inside the temple is paved with bricks. However the superstructure is

in ruins. A mukhamantapa was later adjoined to the square sanctum, built

of bricks belong to the temple of Jaina faith. A brick square structure

with a hole and a Linga is situated about 400 meters away from the present

excavated site towards the west. The importance of the temple is that

the Linga is square at Brahmabhaga, octogonal at Vishnubhaga and Rudra-

bhaga being the earliest. Added the structure is unique for, the Linga

is devoid of Panavatta i .e . , the arghya with a varimarga , unlike the

structures at Veerapuram, datable to second/third centuries AD . On compa

rative grounds, the plan of the temple is similar to the open-air shrines

found at Yeleswaram on the banks of river Krishna.

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The transition from brick to stone is seen in the temples constructed

during the second phase. About 100 metres away from the Jaina temple,

/a small temple dedicated to Lord Siva, constructed entirely of granite but

for the brick Yoni peetha, belongs to the last phase. The transformation

to stone, from brick, seems to be due to the influence of the rock-cut

architecture of the preceeding ages and the easy availability of sandstone

and Khondalite in the areas, where the temples are built. Owing to the

/ / _continued patronage of Saivism, by Satavahanas and their successive rulers,

✓a large number of Saivaite shrines were constructed.

Temples with square, rectangular and apsidal plans, plain walls and

superstructures having one or two storeyes crowned by square sikharas,

seem to be the order of the temple architecture, during the first half

of the first millennium of Christian era. The shrine models at Yeleswaram,

and Chejerla reveal the basic Ekatala Vlmaha of Dravidian style, with diffe

rent kinds of bases i .e . adhishthanas, inclusive of mouldings of various

types, the walls, the superstructure and the slkhara. These components

of temple architecture, have been codified and formed into salient features

of a Dravidian temple, as described in the later works on temple architec

ture, like Kamika Agamam, Karapa Agamam, isana Slvagurudeva Paddhatl

etc., datable to tenth century AD and onwards.

Descriptive account of a Typical Dravidian Tasple (fig.7 fi 8)

The lower most element of the temple is the Pltha or the base.

Temples built earlier to tenth century AD, seem to be devoid of the Upapitha

or the sub-bases. Later, these upapithas have created different kinds of

mouldings, known to be Upana (the lower most moulding). Jagati (the ver

tical moulding), Kampa (the fillet), Pattlka (the thick moulding).

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Kantha (the large recessed moulding), Kapota (the over-hanging moulding

of the cornice) and Prati (the thick flat moulding). Most of these mould

ings are found used in the architectural features of the temples, in the

area under study.

The Vastu texts of the Dravidian school of architecture classify the

Adhishthanas according to the proQ.les of the principal mouldings. They

are - Padabandha, Pratibandha, Padmabandha, Kapotabandha and Manchabandha.

Following are the details:

PADABANDHA: The Padabandha base is composed of an Upana, Jagati.

Tripattakumuda (a three-faceted moulding), Kantha and Pattlka.

PRATIBANDHA: Use of a Vrttakumuda (the circular moulding) is the distin

guishing feature of Pratibandha type of adhishthana.

PADMABANDHA: The Padmabandha adhishthana consists of an Upana, Jagati,

Padma and Pattlka mouldings. The fluted kumuda mouldings appear since

nineth century AD, while the vedika mouldings above the kap'ota, from

tenth century onwards. Likewise, the Urdhwapadma and the Adhopadma

mouldings have been introduced in the bases since tenth century AD.

KAPOTABANDHA: In the Kapotabandha adhishthana either the Vrtta or the

tripatta Kumuda are used and the crowing moulding is invariably kapota.

MANCHABANDHA: The Machabandha adhishthana is devoid of the kumuda

moulding either in the faceted or circular form.

The next important component in the temple architecture is the wall i .e . ,

Bhitti of the Pada, composed of a bhlttlsthambha or a kudyasthambha,

supporting at equal intervals. The recesses between each of the sthambhas

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are filled with Panjaras and the devakoshtas. The bhittisthambhas are

square pilasters composed of mulasthambha, lasuna, dadi, kumbha, phalika-

padma, Virakantha and Podika in the upper region of the shaft. The Kosh-

tapanjara is fashicned into a projected section with framing pilasters suppor

ted by the kapota and above the same a shrine-front of an apsidal form

or square shrine model is carved.

Devakoshthas, the niches on the central offset of the wall are on the

garbhagrha, the antarala and on the mukhamantapa with framing pilasters

and a kapota lintel, above all. Either a makara toram, or a salasikhara

in wagon-topped or barrel vaulted roof, are set over these devakoshtas.

Sometimes, there will be silt type of niches, sans framing pilasters as

crowning members.

Kumbhapanjaras as a decorative motif on the walls, begin since eleventh

century AD . A vase with an overflowing flowers deocration supports the

shaft, topped by Nasi (a horse-shoe shaped motif).

Prastara denotes the entablature over the wall or pillars, constituting the

mouldings of an Uttara (the beam) Vajana, Valabhl (the bhutamala line),

Kapota. alinga, antari, prati and Vajana. Normally the hamsamala or bhuta

mala or both embellish the valabhi moulding. Kapota. the over-hanging

moulding over cornice is projected duly decorated with nasifi.

The terrace at the bottom is marked by Vyalas (the leonine form)

and a row of the miniature shrines called hara consisting of a kuta, sala

and panjara, working to be a parapet. If the superstructure is of a single

storey it is known as Ekatala Vimana. Elaborate superstructure with two

or three Vimanas follow the same design.

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The griva and the sikhara, normally square and rarely circular or Octogonal

are inset with a devakoshtha facing the four cardinal points. The crowning

member called Stupi. is the finial.

In the Dravidian school of architecture, the roofs of the antarala

and the mukhamantapa are flat. At times the extension of the hara consis

ting of kuta, sale and panjara, are adapted to the antarala and the mukha-

mantapa. Above the roof of the antarala the projecting element adapting

the design of the storey is decorated with a large horse-shoe shaped arch,

inset with a diety related to the God enshrined is called sukanasa; which

however does not form the characteristic features of a Dravida Vimana.

/ _

Sukanasa seems to be the influence of the Nagara tradition on the temples

of Andhra Desa. (ASIAP-BRP-1980).

Although the canons of architecture do not describe much about the

carved doorways to be a feature of Dravidian tempe architecture the temples

of Andhra Desa, possess richly carved doorways, consisting either two,

three or five jambs i .e . , sakhas. Dwarapalas, usually carved at the begi

nnings of the jambs on either sides, however occassionally flank the doors.

The square block in the mid-lintel, known to be lalatabimba, is inset

with Gajalakshmi motif, and above the same the kapota moulding is set,

often decorated with a makara torana or miniature shrine models.

The mantapa i .e . the hall is supported by the Sthambhas i .e . , pillars.

In the earlier stages, the pillars devoid of a base, were squarish. The

shaft of the pilasters is terminated by a cube called mulasthana, decorated

with the loops or garlands and the pearls hanging from the mouths of kirti-

mukhas. The constituents of the capital are - lasuna (the pitcher), dadi

(the cushion shaped moulding with a convex profile), kumbha (the vase.

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Occasionally flattened and inverted), phalika (an inverted lotus with petals

and base) and phalaka (the abacus), as the plan be. virakantha, a square

rinwfil - 11kf> member, holds the corbel above. The P5dika corbel in hori

zontal rolls or simple semi-circular profiles is decorated with a median

band.

The early phase of the ecclesiastical architecture in the area under

study, according to the Dravidian style, covers the period ranging from

the second quarter of the seventh 'century upto the end of nineth century

AD. However, no records or the remains of the period are found intact.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF LIVING STRUCTURAL TEMPLES

Thus, as a conjoining to the theoretical description of the a'chitecture

of a Dravidian temple, a brief descriptive account of the important living

structural temples, excepting the temples at Chejerla, in the area under

study, in a chronological order, is following (ASIAP-BRP-1980);

The earliest known structural temple completely in stone, dedicated

to Lord Jalapeswara is situated 8 Km s.away from Pondugula village in Guntur

District. It was a part of former Vengidesa. The temple on plan consists

of a garbhagrhaj an antarala and a mukhamantapa. The walls of the sanctum

show deep offsets and recessess with bhadra, karna and salilantara sec

tions, in manasutra. The padabandha adhishthana, which formed to be

the feature of the temples of the land, has an upana, jagati, tripattakumuda,

and kantha with galapasa and pattika mouldings. The walls of the sanctum

having niches in the koshtapanjaras figure in the salilantaras. The devakoshtas

are adorned by the makara toranas. Strong and robust lions mark the

deeply projecting offsets and recessed parts, "fhe superstructure is a dwi-

t£da vimana with a greater width at the base and the same wall pattern

133

is adopted in the storeys. The subdued griva, the separated phalaka.

the square sikhara are among other features. The exteriors of mukhaman-

tapa and antarala are plain, except for a small window. The three jambed

doorway, decorated with lata, latapatra and sthambha motifs, is flanked

by dwarapalas at the base. The pillars in the mukhamantapa. square at

the bottom and atop, are octagonal at the middle. The upper portion of

the shaft is made into lacuna, kumbha, Virakantha and taranga corbel motifs.

Added a stepped pyramidal superstructure is also found in the same

/area. The temple dedicated to Lord Siva in Terala, Guntur District, data

ble to eighth century AD. is the earliest example of the type. The temple

has a garbhagrha, an antarala and a mukhamantapa. Laid-out on a dwi-

anga plan, the sanctum has a niche on each side of the wall, now buried

upto the cornice level.

The typical features of Dravidian temple architecture are found much

intact in the temples at Biccavole in East Godavari district datable to

Gunaga Vijayaditya's period. The Golingeswara temple consists of a garbha

grha, an antarala and a mukhamantapa, revealing the deep offsets and rece

sses. The garbhagrha marks the use of padbandha and pratibandha types

of adhishthanas, with upana, padmajagati, vrtta, tripattakumuda, kantha,

kampa, pottika and prati sequence of mouldings.

Owing to the nearness in land route, political affinity and cultural

integration^ Kinship exists between the Andhras and Tamilians. The same

could be found in temple architecture, particularly in the wall pattern

and in the ordering of elements of the superstructure. The squattish appea

rance of the superstructure and the preference for square sikhara form

special features of temple architecture in the Vengidesa. However, the

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Vengi architect had maintained individuality of the land. The temples

of Vengidesa, in contrast to the Tondaimandalam temples, posses a fine

mixture of architectonic outlook and decorative character of the walls.

The square sikhara, heavy and broad superstructure, lack of sukanasa,

the pada and pratibandha adhishttanas, further mark the style.

_ /The K^amukha sect of Salvism, emerged during the nineth and tenth

centuries AD has established simhaparishads at centres like Bezawada (the

medieaval name for Vijayawada) and Amaravati. Founded by Lakulisapasupati,

the Kalamukhas had enjoyed the royal patronage and the maths established

became educational institutions and functioned to be nuclei of activities

of social upliftment as well. The mercantile guilds such as Nakaramu,

Santa Nakaram, Naiiadesi Pekkendru etc acclerated the growth of the Kaiamukha

sect. As a mark of supermacy over other cults and sects, temples were

constructed at five important commercial centres in the coastal Andhra,

in the name of Pancharamas, viz. Amararama at Amaravati, Daksh^ama

at Draksharamam, Kumararama at Samarlakota, SSmarama at Bhimavaram and

BMmarama at Chebrolu. (RA-BSL-1973).

A marked distinction is seen in temple architecture in Vengidesa,

since Chalukya Bhima-I, during whose period, the temple building activity

gained momentum. The temple essentially contained a ground-floor, either

functional or solid and the upper floor is reached through a flight of steps

from inside or outside or the ground floor, and the upper floor has all

the adjuncts i .e . , the mukhamantapa and the garbhagrha in the sandhara

layout. Either the bhadragavaksha or the bhadravalokana are provided

in the exterior wall opposite the sanctum, essentially in the Sarvatbbhadra

plan, with plain exteriors crowned by a three storeyed superstructure.

135

The temples dedicated to Saivism, at various centres in the area

under study, such as the Bhlmeswara temple at Chalikya Bhlmavaram-

Samarlakot, known as KumarSrama; the Bhlmeswara temple at Chebrolu;

the Someswara temple at Bhimavaram and the Amreswara temple at Amaravati,

were constructed during tenth century AD. Added, the temple dedicated

to God Virabhadra and the temples named Nakkalagudi and Kancharagudi-

all found in Bikkavole village are built during the nineth and tenth centuries.

The temples are dated on epigraphical evidences, wherever inscriptional

records are available, and on the basis of typology and stylistics in

the absence of lithic records.

The massive temple at Daksharama is enclosed by two prakaras

on outer enclosure, with several mantapas and subsidary shrines. The

four gopuras on the upper enclosure stand on the cardinal directions.

The main edifice and the outer enclosure with the gopuras, are expanded

by the inner enclosure, the nandimantapa, the natyamantapa, the kalyana-

mantapa and such other additions. Thus, since thirteenth century the

temple compounds were studded with the additions of Kalyanamantapa,

Utsavamantapa, Yagasala, Paka^ala, mathas and the like. The prakara

acquired a towered gate known as Gopura. The Unichuttumala (SII-V-

25) i .e . around the prikara became popular by the same time.

/As a counter action against the thick spread of Saivism and to

be predecessors of Ramanuja Charya's propagation of Vaishnavism, temples

dedicated to the Cult of Lord Vishnu, belonging to the Vaikhanasa and

Pahcharatra igama siddhantas, were constructed at important centres like

Tirupati, Tiruchanur and Bapatla, beginning tenth century AD (RA-BSL-

1973).

136

Thus, Bapatla, forms to be one of the earliest centres of Vaishnavistn

and is the earliest temple dedicated to Lord Bhavaiiarayara in Andhra

D e ^ , datable to sixth century AD, on the traditional grounds and tenth

century on epigraphical records and architectural style.

Following Bapatla (Plates BPTL 1 to 21 ) the earliest centre of Lord

Bh^variarayana, eleven more temples were constructed in the area under

study, v iz ., BhSVadevarapalli (Plates BDPL 1 to 08) in Krishna District,

Sarpavaram (Plates SRPM 1 to 11) in East Godavari District, Ponnoor (Plates

PONR 1 to 16 ) in Guntur District, Pedaganjam (Plates PGJM 1 to 08) in

Prakasam District, Inumella (Plates INML 1 to 09) in Guntur District,

PadarthI (Plates PDRT 1 to 06) in Prakasam District, Pattisam (Plates

PTSM 1 to 07) in West Godavari District, Narasaraopet (Plates NRPT 1

to 03) in GuntCir District, ChinnaganJ^ (Plates CGJM 1 to 05) in Prakasam

District, Amrthalur (Platles AMLR 1 to 07) in Guntur District and Sabbaya-

gudem (Plates SBGM 1 to 03) in Krishna District, from tenth to early

twentieth century in a chronological order.

Of the twelve temples, the temple at Padarthi in Prakasam district

is in ruins (Plates PDRT-1 to 6). The temple at Pattisam in the mid

or river Godavari, in East GSdavari district (Plates PTSM 1 to 7);<ind

the temple at Narasaraopet in Guntur District (Plates NRPT 1 to 3 ), are

thoroughly renovated and remodelled. The temples at Chinnaganjam in

Prakasam district (Plates CGJM 1 to 5 ); and at Amruthalur in Guntur

district (Plates AMLR 1 to 7 ) ; are seem to be constructed during the

early nineteenth century: and the temple at Sabbayagudam in Krishna

district (Plates SBGM 1 to 3) is constructed during the second quarter

137

of the twentieth century.

Following is the detailed account of each of the twelve temples,

individually, beginning with the description of: temple complex, the

horizontal axial of ground plan, the vertical structure, the exterior

embellishments, the interior decorative motifs, the door ways, and the

medium of construction, commencing with Bapatla, the earliest temple,

ending with the temple constructed in the second quarter of the twentieth

century at Sabbiyagudem, Krishna District.

BAPATLA (BPTL 1 to 21):

Bapatla, the head quarters of the taluq named after the town,

Guntur District, lies at 15° 55' on north latitude and at 80° 30' on east

longitude on the main line of New Delhi - Madras, Calcutta - Madras

broad guage railway line.

The temple of Lord Bhavanariyana has been declared taken by

the Archaeoogical Survey of British India in the category of the Ancient

Protected Monuments under Section 3(1) of the Ancient Monuments Preservation

Act VII of 1904, vide the Government Order No . 686 dated 24th August

1907, of the Madras Presidency.

As recorded in the Document No: 2222 of 1916 (VSRS No. 535 of

Bapatla), a draft agreement, under section 5 of Act VII of 1904, was

excuted on the 6th day of July 1916, between Desiraju Ranga ^o w , Sthanam

Rama Yogi and others, the trustees of Sri Bhavanarayana Swami Temple,

Bapatla town, Bapatla taluq, Guntur District and the Survey about the

maintenance of the temple.

According to the Annual Reports of the ASI, 1930-34 (pt.I p .40),

the Bhavanarayana temple at Bapatla, Guntur district, is of considerable

138

interest on the account of the Inscriptions on the walls of the sanctum,

containing a Vishnu image and on the outer faces of the enclosure walls

of the main building. Since these walls were bulging out the then Superin

tendent had got them repaired and rebuilt during the year 1930-31 with

lime concrete and plaster: on the recommendations of the report submitted

by A.H.Longhurst (Annual Reports of ASI 1929-30 p. 46).

Further the monument had been thoroughly studied by Messrs.Abdul

Azeez in 1957, M. Venkatramayya in 1960, Dr .I.K .Sarm a in 1973 6 1975

and A .S .R .i^janeyulu in 1975 and Dr.K .Krishna Murthy in 1977 of ASI.

TEMPLE COMPLEX:

The temple complex, as today, comprises an outer prakara wall,

entered through a gateway, facing south, leading to the inner prakara

wall of the main temple. The main temple, thus situated in the centre

of the court yard, is rectangular in shape (BPTL-1).

GiliR5puram: This is the main entrance into the outer enclosure, to

be studied in two sections - the lower and the upper structures. The

lower structure is approximately 20 ' high and built with rectangular

and square granite stones. The approximate width of the square shaped

lower structure is 15' and the thickness of the walls is about 2 ' . On

either side of the carpet way of nearly 20 ' , there are two raised plat

forms, and on one of them there is a drum used for Prabhata Bheri

i .e . , the Drums of Awakening. Constructed with lime mortar and bricks,

covered with lime plaster, the Galigopuram is devided into four storeys

supported by wooden beams, rafters and pillars. Every storey has

an opening on all sides. However, no permanent steps are provided

to climb upto the sikhara, where the Kalasas are placed. The tower

139

is crowned with a Sila type pavillion at both ends shaped as Chaityas

and five brass Kalasas are found placed atop. There are lime mortar

sculptures of devotees and various episodes from epics and legends are

neatly moulded and arranged on the four storeys, bifurcating each storey

by lime mortar band (BPTL-2).

Outer Prakara wall (Clockwise Direction): Next to Galigopuram, there

is an unused room. Adjacent to this room, there is a hall supported

by 24 pillars made of black granite stone, where the Vahanas or the

Vehicles of the Lord, such as Hamsa Vahana. Gajav^ana, Aswavahana,

/_Seshavahana etc., made of wood and covered by a brass sheet are

stored. According to the temple records there was an old store house

for the Vahanas. In 1920s the same was converted into shops to raise

funds for the temple. The present Vahanasala is a later construction.

Next to the mantapa there is a modern hall and a lumber room. At

a short distance along the wall facing west, there is a big rectangular

godown on the north-west corner. About 10' away from the north-east

corner, in the middle of the court yard, there is a well, still in use,

said to have been constructed during the Chola period, and there is

another brick well, constructed by a devotee in 1920s. Along the eastern

wall, near the Galigopuram, there is another room in the north-east

corner, being used as the Office of the Executive Officer of the Endowments

Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh.

Dhwajasthambhas: The special feature of this temple is there are two

Dhwajasthambhas (flag posts) known as Jiva Dhwaja and Keertl Dhwaja.

According to the Sthalapurana in the 1803AD, the East India Company

had put the Circars area consisting of Bapatla region to auction and

140

Sri Raja Vasireddi Vehkatidri Naidu, Manne Sultan had purchased the

same. Having visited the temple, Sri Naidu had understood the importance

of the temple and erected two Dhwajasthambhas granting donations for

the maintenance of the temple.

Below the Kirtidhwaja, there are images of Garuda (facing north)

/ _and Sri Veeranjaneya Swamy. Added, one foot away from Jivadhwaja

there is a mutilated lime stone pillar approximately one metre high

in vertical position with a conical top, having traces of Brahmi letters

datable to the early centuries of Christian era, the contents of which

are undecipherable. However the carwings of a Nagamuchilinda and the

seated miniature Buddha atop are identifiable (BPTL-3).

Ground Plan: The temple consists of a Garbhagrha, an Arthamantapa,

a Mahamantapa, enclosed by a Prakara. The temple being of sandhara

type, a wide circumambulatory path is provided in between the inner

prakara and the garbhagrha, elevated to a height of 8 ". There is a

sixteen square pillared hall, extended in the later period, facing east.

The Mahamantapa in between the main temple and the prakara is supported

by 82 circular and square pillars.

Along the inner prikara in the clockwise direction, there are cham

bers for-God Anjaneya and Garuda Murthy (the vehicle of Lord Vishnu);

Lord Kesava; the bed chamber of Lord Bhavanarayana; the chamber housing

the image of Goddess Rajya Lakshmi, the divine consort of Lord Bhava

narayana (on the south-east corner): Sage Vikhanasa attended by Bhrgu,

Marichi, Atri, Kasyapa: Lord Ranganayaka in the reclining posture on

Adiseshu, with Lord Brahma from the navel, demons Madhu and Kaitabha

and King Krimikantha, the founder of the temple (on the north-west corner);

141

Goddess Andal Tayaru (in the chamber earlier in which the image of

Lord Someswara was installed). Added, almost attached to the sanctum,

on right side, there are chambers housing Lord Kodanda Rama along

with Goddess Seetha and L a k sh m a ^ : Lord Jwala Nrsimha (exactly opposite

to the chamber of Lord Kesava) and the Twelve Alwars of Vaishnavaite

Pantheon. In addition there are two closed rooms on either side of

the extended mantapa.

Vertical: The vertical plan of the Garbhagrha consists of an Adhisthana,

Sthambhavarga, Prastara, Urdhwabhumi, Prastara, Sikhara and a Stupi.

The adhisthana belonging to the padabandha type, forming the typical

architectural feature of the day, consists of an upana, jagati, patta

kumuda, kampa, kantha, kampa, pattika and vajana, respectively. The

floor level of the garbhagrha is maintained to the top of the jagati.

The sthambha varga does not contain the vedika or the Aswapada. The

pilasters have become thinner by two inches with two inches projection

from the original wall, consisting the plain shaft ( i .e . , the ^hambha-

varga), followed by MuttumOla, idaikattu, kala^a, kudam, phalikapadma,

veerakantha and podika. There are five devakoshthas - two on the

either sides of the arthamantapa, one on each of the garbhagrha and

on the rear. The devakoshtas are flanked by two pilasters, sans architec

tural features, topped by a vedi like varga, finally crowned by a lata-

torana. However none of the devakoshtas preserve any images.

The prastara i .e . the roof of the temple, consists of an uttara,

valabhi (i .e . bhutamala)^ kampa. kapota and prativarga, respectively.

Above the roof level there is a two storied Vimana, called Sundara Vimana.

It is a typical early Chola Vimana retaining the Pallava affiliations as

142

could be seen in the tiers of the so-called Dharmaraja ratha at Mahabali-

puram, consisting of a karnakilta, prastara, vimanakantha, s^ikhara and

a stupi. The karnakuta is arranged horizontally, with a karnakuta,

a hara, a sala, a hara and a kuta respectively. The dwarfish features

of the karnakuta resemble the karnakutas on the monolithic rathas and• •

the structural temples at Mahabalipuram. A two pillared panjara crowned

by a nasika is arranged on the either sides of the s^ala in the central

(mid) portion of hara. The karnakuta consists of vedika, sthambha,

uttara, padma, kap5ta, sikhara and kalasa respectively.

The second storey of the Vimana begins following a wall portion

to a height of one and half feet is seen with pilasters. The details

over the second storey are similar to the first storey, beginning prastara,

constituting the same vargas as detailed in the prastara portion of the

main temple. The bhadra projection at salabh'Sga is visible and the

kapota part is adorned by four nasis on each side. The vimanakantha

is in octogonal shape belonging to the Dravida order, with eight niches

for each quadrent, surmounted by nasis. There are four cochant lions

placed on the top of the vyalavali instead of Vedika. The sikhara is

also executed in octogonal bell shape. Mahapadmas are carved one above

/ _the other to the top of Sikhara. Finally there is a Stupi or a finial.

EXTERIOR EMBELLISHMENTS

The pillars are executed in square and circular orders. There

are a minimum of sculptures, such as decorative kirtimukhas (Oozing

pearl festoons), the dancing figures and the standing couples roughly

executed on the shaft of the pilasters, beneath the kalasa. The top

of the koshta is adorned by latit5rana variety with artistic festoons,

creepers and (some other) geometrical designs.

143

There are human figures along with the hamsamaJa and the bhutamala

layers of the ekatala The seated dwarfish male figures are carved

with diminishing iconographic features. On the southern portion of the

bhutamala band, there is small image of God Vinayaka in the sitting posture,

carved in the mid of the koshta portion of the same layer. There are

eight mythical vyalas, one on each side, in the prativarga of the same

prastara, resembling the lions found on the Dharmaraja ratha datable

to early pallava period.

INTERIOR DECORATIVE MOTIFS

In the arthamantapa portion, there are four pillars, out of which

two are semi-circular and the two at the centre are square, with all

accessories of a pillar. The ceilings of the mahamantapa, arthamantapa

and the garbhagrha does not contain any architectural designs. However

the ceiling of the garbhagrha is supported by the wooden rafters resembling

the earlier roof pattern. There is a thin layer of wooden planks on

the wooden rafters covering the ceiling of the garbhagrha*

DOORWAYS

The doorways of the arthamantapa (BPTL-0 8 ) are decorated with

purnaghatas on the bottom side of the voga (right) and bhoea (left)

sthambhas. The bhuvanea (sill) is plain, whereas the patanea (lintel)

contains the Gajalakshmi motif at the lalatabimba (dedicatory block).

The yoga and bhoaa sthambhas are carved with latapatra motifs.

MEDIUM OF CONSTRUCTION

The temple is executed in khondalite stone available in plenty

in the area under study. The monolithic pillars, the accessories of

the pillars including the temple vargams are executed in the same stone.

144

Wood seems to have been used as beams for the roof in the sanctum,

indicating the use of wood for structures in the earlier periods. Thus,

the temple purely is a pumsa temple.

BHAVADEVARAPALLI (BDPL 1 to 08)

Bhavadevarapalli named after Lord Bhavanarayana, the principal

diety of the village, is situated at 15° 80' on north latitude and 79°

85' on east longitude in the Avanigadda taluq, Krishna District.

TEMPLE COMPLEX

The temple as today consists of a superstructure, the mantapa,

the galigopuram. The other constructions found are the additions made

in the later periods extending upto the modern times. The temple on

the stylistic and architectural grounds is next to the temple at Bapatla,

datable to the later half of the eleventh century CE. The physical

description of the temple is as follows:

Ground Plan: Axially the temple consists of a garbhagrha, an arthamantapa

and a mahamantapa. On the two sides of the arthamantapa, there are

two chambers dedicated to God Anjaneya on the left and Goddess Rajya-

lakshmi, the divine consort of Lord Bhavanarayana on the right. The

main entrance is on the east, and another entrance is also provided

on the south of mahamantapa.

Vertical: The temple has a padabandha type of adhishthana, with fine

mouldings of padavarga, prastara, karnakuta, prastara, karnakuta, prastara,

vedika, kantha, sikhara and stupi, respectively. The adhisthana consists

of an upana, padmajagati, tripattakumuda, flanked by kantha and pattika.

The same mouldings continued from garbhagrha to mahamantapa. The

padavargam is simple devoid of details on the pilasters. The pilasters

contain only phalikapadma and podika. At the centre of the salabhaga.

145

there are three simple koshthas on the three sides of garbhagrha and

two koshthas on the south and north wallsof mahamantapa. The prastara

contains an uttara, a kampa, bhutamala (i .e . valabhi), kampa, kapota

and an adhopadma in place of vyalas. The bhutamala portion is carved

with doves seeming to be resting in their nests. The karnaldita is arranged

with kuta, panjara, sala and koshthas, respectively, on all sides.

In its vertical direction the karnakuta resembles an ekatala vimana,

with vedika, kantha, kapota, sikhara and kalasa. The prastara of the

first storey i .e . urdhwabhumi is simply arranged without any decorative

motifs. The next member is again a karnakuta without vedika, in a

shorter form, followed by a prastara forming the second storey. The

vedika is projected out from kantha (known as nirgavamu and neevramu)

with kantha, kampa, adhopadma and vajana mouldings. The (vimana)

kantha is round with vimana devatas, executed probably in modern times.

^ - /The Sikhara has an uttara, kapota, padma, sikhara and three mahapadmas,

one above the other. The top member finial i .e . , Stupi is made out

of brass.


The swastibhadra jalaka (i .e . window) on the north of Mahamantapa

is a noteworthy feature. The koshtha is toped by prastara and sikhara.

There are three finials arranged on the top of the koshtapanjara.

The three storeyed vlmaha is without nasis on the prastara portion.

There are sculptures of Vaishnavaite pantheon. Four lions, each with

two bodies and a single head are resting on the corners of vedika.

INTERIOR DECORATIVE MOTIFS

There are four pillars in the centre of mahamantapa. The aswapada

of the pillar contains an upana, padma and kampa. The shaft being

146

plain, the middle portion ^between the shaft and the central block is round

with an octogonal patta in the mid portion. The central block is also

square without sculptures. The kala^a has four keertimukha motifs on

the four corners. There is a band on the neck portion of the kalasa.

Dadi, the circular disc, an independent member, is placed over a kalasa

under the neatly executed phalika padma. The podikas are in the plus

form to receive the beams from sides.

DOORWAYS: The doorways are simple and plain without s^akhas and any

decorative motifs.

MEDIUM OF CONSTRUCTION: It is a napumsaka temple, built with red

sand stone upto the roof level, and the superstructure in brick. The

roof is laid with lime concrete.

SARPAVARAM (SRPM 1 to 11):

Sarpavaram, lies at 16° 60' on north latitude and at 82° 14' on

east longitude, about thre6 kilometres west of Kakinada township, on

the Samarlakota - Kakinada branch line of Vijayawada - Calcutta main

railway line. Lord Bhavanarayana is the principal deity of the village.

TEMPLE COMPLEX ■ ^

147

The temple of Lord Bh5vanarayai)a is the perfect blend of Chalukya-

Chola architectural styles. -The vimana over the sanctum and the lofty

tower on the north with eight stories reminds the Chola temples at Kanchi-

puram. The main shrine is situated at the centre of the temple complex

and the other deities are placed in individual chambers in the quadrangular

hall. The galigopuram to the north of the temple is an example of the

workmanship of the nineteenth century artists of Andhra. The high gali-

gopuram to the north, has eight storeys and the images on the first storey

are carved in three rows, on the next storey in two rows and on the

upper one in one row and in each row there are about 40 to 60 images.

On the upper row the images of Gods and Goddesses are carved reflecting

a striking contrast between the divine beings and human beings. Chatur-

bhuja Rajyalakshmi is worshipped in a small temple in the left corner

of the compound. Manawala Mahamuni and a few other alwars are also

worshipped in the temple complex.

Ground Plan: The temple facing east consists of a garbhagrha, an antarala,

and a mahamantapa. In front of the mahamanta there is a sixteen pillared

another square mantapa annexed on the east. The temple is well enclosed

by a prakara wall having an inner mantapa for pradakshinapatha. On

the west there is a stepped entrance leading to the shrine of Patala Bhava-

n^ayana, said to be older than the main temple. The shrine facing west

on the north-east corner is housing Goddess Rajyalakshmi. On the south

east corner there are three empty chambers used for storing the vehicles.

Vertical: The temple is raised on an upapitha of vedibhadra type and

has an adhishtana, padavarga, prastara and a double storied vimana.

The adhisthana belonging to the padabandha type comprises an upana,

jagati, kumuda, kantha, ■ : pattika and vajana. The padavarga devoid

of vidika has pilasters at regular intervals. There are five koshthas

- two in antarala and three on the three sides of the garbhagrha. The

pilaster is devoid of aswapada. The top portion has a kalasa, kudam,

phalikapadma and podika. Of the five koshthas only the three on the

garbhagrha preserve the images and the remaining two are arranged with

jalakas i .e . , windows.

148

The prastaranga has an uttara, kampa, valabhi, vajana, kapota

and prativarga. The valabhi contains hamsamalas and bhutamalas in addition

to some erotic figures. The nasis are arranged in the kapota portion

to the centre of the wall-pilasters (the kudya sthambhas). Some klrti-

mukhas are also found carved in the prativarga. The Vimana, having

its height double to normalcy belongs to sarvakamika variety. Vertically,

the Vimana has a karnakuta, prastara again karnakuta (dwarfish), Vedika

and sikhara. On the vedika there are four lions to the four corners

on the four sides of the sikhara. In the centre of the mahanai^is there

are some Vaishanvaite figures belonging to the late medieaval periods.

However the architect does not seem to have followed any standard code

of architecuture except adopting the principles of temple architecture

prevalent during the period of construction.


The upapitha is richly decorated with architectural features and

projections. The pillars and kapotas (of the upapithas) and prativarga

in the same upapitha are neatly executed. The adhishthana is of simple

padabandha variety. Excepting the pillar projections in the kantha portion,

there are no noteworthy architectural embellishments. In the padavarga,

the pilasters are simple in rectangular shape, with a few mouldings on

the top such as kalasa, phalika etc., in the plain order. The devakoshthas

arranged in the padavarga portion are supported by two pillars crowned

by prastara and then followed by a miniature Sikhara and salas. The

prastara of the devakoshthas are decorated with hanging buds. In the

prastara portioA excepting the uttara and vajana, the rest are decorated

to minimum. For example in the bhutamala portion there are series of

hamsas in the base relief. Some bhuta figures as bharavahakas (of the

149

vima^na) and some erotic figures are executed in the normal artistic manner.

In the kapota portion there are six bhadra nasis. The prativarga contains

the pratimukhas at irregular intervals. The first storey of the temple

is horizontally arranged with kuta, panjara, sala and again panjara and

kuta. To the top of the first storey there is an elevated prastara suppor

ted by six pillars on each side. The next member is again a karnakuta

having the same series as described in the first storey. To the top

of the first storey there does not seem to be any prastara. On the vedika

portion there are four lions facing four corners with two bodies and one

head are artistically executed. In the central bhadra projected portion

there are four seated Vaishnavaite sculptures surmounted by four kirti-

mukhas. The central block of the pillars over the lion heads is executed

with hamsas, geomertical designs and other padma motifs. The lion pillars

are placed on aswapadas. The another interesting feature is that there

is a full blossomed lotus in place of kudam over the kalasa which is

typical.

INTERIOR EMBELLISHMENTS

The sthambhas in the mukha mantapal^mahamantapa are richly decorated

with artistic designs, sculptures such as dancing figures and Vaishnavaite

themes (the Dasavataras of Lord Vishnu) are carved on the pillars.

The pillars have aswapada, sthambha bhaga (having figures on all the

four sides), pattabhaga again sthambhabhaga with sculptural details. The

kalasa, kudam and phaika-padma are executed in a faceted way. However

the pillars are not in uniform order. Tlie interesting feature in

this temple is that the simhapada (the lion motif) pillars erected on

the southern side of the mahamantapa, seems either to be the continuation

150

of the late Pallava tradition figured in the Dharmarija ratha in the Mahiba-

lipuram, executed by Jayasimha the early Pallava king. One such other

example is seen at Malleswaram village in Mahabtibnagar district in the

two storied mantapa supported by lions in the ground floor. The ceiling

in the main temple is laid on wooden rafters with lime concrete in vogue

during the period under study. The prakira mantapa raised on an ashtanga

upapitha is supported by pillars in regular intervals all around the temple.

The prakara wall has an adhishtana with upana, padmajagati, kumuda

and an adhopadma. Excepting the adhishthana made in red sand stone,

the superstructure is constructed with brick mortar.

DOORWAYS

The doorways of the temple are plain with simple designs. The

bhuvanga (sill) at the main entrance has some little decorations. The

rest are very plain.


The temple is of napumsaka variety, constructed with red sandstone

from adhishtana to prastara and the vimana portion with brick and lime

mortar. The pillars in the mantapa are monoliths in the same red sand

stone. The adhishtana of the prakara wall is constructed with red sand

stone whereas the superstructure is with brick. The roof of the main

temple is laid on the wooden rafters as in the case of other temples.

The roof of the mantapas are arranged with slabs or red sandstone.

PONNOOR(PONR 1 to 16):

Ponnoor^ headquarters of the tluq named after the town, Guntur District

is situated at 16° 05 ' on north latitude and at 80° 34' on east longitude

on the main broad gauge railway route. The connecting railway station

is Nidu(m)brolu about 4 kms away from Ponnoor town; thus, Nidu(m)brolu

151

and Ponnoor today are twin towns. Ponnoor is about 50 Kms from Bapatla

on north direction.

TEMPLE COMPLEX

The sacred temple of Lord Bhavanarayana with Sundara Valli Rajya-

lakshmi facing east is on the banks of the river (sacred pond) Tungabhadra

T

in the shape of a Chakram (disc); hence it is called Chakrakshetram.

There is a shrine dedicated to Lord Chennakesava to the north of the

Goshtimantapam. Panniddar A l w ^ s , the famous Vaishnavaite saints are

to the left of the Lord. In addition there are temples dedicated to Lord

Lakshmi Narasimha, Kasi Viswe^wara and Goddess Rajya Lakshmi, to the

south, north and south-east directions, respectively, to the shrine of

Lord Bhavanarayana. In front of the eastern tower (galigopuram) of the

temple there is a shrine of God Anjaneya with a black stone image of

37' height; the image of Garuda, the divine vehice of Lord Vishnu; a

50' high dhwajasthambha. There is a Brahmasarassu containing the waters

of river Tungabhadra, to thft east of the temple. The temple on the

architectural features and epigraphical records is a construction of later

Chola period datable to 12-th century CE. The physical description of

the temple is as follows: ̂ ■

Ground Plan: On plan, the temple consists of'a garbhagrha, an antarala,

an arthamantapa and a mahamfentapa enclosed by a p r ^ a r a wall. Unlike

the temple at Bapatla, an- aintarala, in between the garbhagrha and an

arthamantapa is introduced marking the increase in worshipping practices

meant for the conduct of ' vt^rious religious rituals. The temple belongs

to the sandhara type, with: a pradakshina patha in between the temple

and the prakara, supported* i by four pillars on a raised padmavedi.

152

Crossing the prakara wall there is a sixteen pillared mantapa, seeming

to be a later addition. To the north-east com er, inside the pradakshiija

patha, there are two small chambers, dedicated to Lord Chennakesawa

and Sri Ramanuja Charya. A n d , on the south-east corner there are two

small chambers without images.

Vertical: Vertically the temple has the following components: an adhishtana,

padavarga and a prastara to the enclosure wall. On the top of prastara

there is a series of sala, hara, kuta and koshtha with regular intervals

vis-a-vis. The vimana portion of the temple has a karnakuta, a prastara,

a vedika, a vimanakantha, a s^ikhara and a stupi.

Adhishthina: Placed on a padma motif, the adhishtana is of padabandha

type. The mouldings of the adhisthana are in the sequence of an upana,

jagati, kampa, kantha, kampa, patta, kumuda, kantha (flanked by kampas)

pattika and vajina. The shtambhavargam, raised on a richly decorated

vedika, contain kantha, kampa, padma and vajina, is arranged with pilasters

of kumbhapanjara motif. The pilasters of the wall does not contain a^wapada

and the sthambha is seen without any decorations upto the idaikattu,

further followed by kalasa, dadi, kudam phalika, padma and pushpapoidika.

In the recesses of the hara portion there are kumbhapanjara motifs oozing

festoons on each side with a pilaster developing from the kumbha, topped

by a nasi. To the central portioti of the sala, there are devakoshthas

supported by two pillars. The crowing member is r©si. The festoons

oozing from the mouths of the kTrtimukhas are in the to^rana motif. Podika,

the top most member of the padavarga, which is absent in other temples

(such as at Bapatla, Bhavadevarapali, Sarpavaram etc), is a pushpapodika,

of noteworth importance.

153

Prastara: The prastara contains an uttarak , kampa , valabhi, vajana,

kapota and vyalavari. The bhutamala is decorated with some geometrical

designs. The bottom of the kapota is carved with bulging bubbles, VySla,

the top most portion is richly decorated with hamsas, vyalas and some

other floral designs.

Vimana: Following components are found in the Vimana:

a) Karnakuta: The karnakuta is raised on a simple vedika, sthambhavarga,

prastara, kantha and a small sikhara. It is more or less the replica

of the original vimana.

b) Prastara: The next important member is prastara with uttara, valabhi,

kapota and vyalavarga. There are six nasis on each side of the kapota

portion. The vy'ajam in the vyalavarga is decorated with vyalas and

makaras, the mythical einimals, mocking at each other.

c) Vedika: The vimana devatas are placed over the vedika. It is in

circular form from vedi to sikhara.

d) Kantha: The kantha is only a plain member devoid of decorations.

e) Sikhara: The sikhara is composed of an uttara, a kampa, a kapota,

an urdhwapadma, a sikhara and a mahapadma. There are eight niches

on the eight cardinal directions.

f) Stupi; The stupi is a brass kalasa, with a Sudarsana Chakra, on

the top of it.


The mouldings of the adhishtana are richly decorated and neatly

executed. The karna and bhadra projections are seen in the karnakuta

and mukhasala portions. The kumbha panjara is attractive in the recesses

154

of hara portions. The koshthas are also supported by two pilasters

topped by nasi and other associated designs. The ghanadwaras i .e . the

koshtahs are devoid of the prakara wall. On the north, there is one

relief figure of a boar, the royal emblem of the Imperial Cholas. The

figure is carved in relief (ardhachitra) in symmetrical order. On the

south of the northern outer prakara wall, there is another relief of a

monkey looking upwards, and bn the south-east corner God Agni is sculpted

seated on a ram, with two faces and eight hands with scruk (the rectangular

laddie) and surva (the round ;laddie). On the cardinal points of the vedika

there are eight Vaishnavaite sculptures in the vimana portion.

INTERIOR DECORATIVE M O T II^ !

The mahamantapa is supported by four neatly finished pillars. The aswapada

is a simple one with adhopadma and fluted angles are shown on the shaft

portion. The roofs of the garbhagrha and the mahamantapa are executed

in the lupa order with diagonal slabs arranged on the beams carrying

square slabs, numbering four, to hold the roof of the slab. The roof

of the pradakshina patha is- flat, unlike the early Chalukyan temples

(Alampur) with sloped roofs.'

DOORWAYS " ^

The doorframe of the igarbhagrha and the arthamantapa are plain

whereas the doorways at the‘ eMrance is decorative. The vertical doorframes

are carved with two dwarap&las on either sides at the bottom. The

top of the vertical doorframes is arranged with latapatra, vertical geometri

cal lines and a pillar like mbtif in the centre of the doorjamb and the

adhopadma motif to the wall side. The top member of the doorframe

(the patanga) is carved M t h latapatra motif and a prastara. The centre

of the lintel is adorned with Gajalakshmi motif in a miniature sala supported

by two pilars as seen in irf^y Kakateeyan temples (eg. Nidikonda, Hanuma-

155

Unlike the temple at Bapatla built of totally stone (categorised

as pumsaka temple), the temple at Ponnooris built upto the superstructure

in stone, followed by bricks upto vimana (categorised as napumsaka temple).

The roof of the pradakshinapatha and the mantapa are laid with lime

mortar using brick bats.

PEDAGANJ^ (PGJM 1 to 08) :

Pedaganjam is about three kilometres towards east from the Uppugun-

duru railway station on the Vijayawada - Madras broad gauge railway line,

lying at 15° 25' on the north latitude and 18° 09' on the east longitude,

in the Chirala taluq of Prakas^am district.

The temple facing east has an outer prakara entered through a gateway,

leading to the inner p r ^ a r a . About four metres from the galigopuram

in the mid of the court yard there is a huge dhwjasthambha. On the

south-west corner, facing east, there is a chamber housing Goddess Lakshmi

and on the left of the temple, on the north, there is a shrine housing

God Anjaneya in huge form. The temple belongs to sahdhara variety with

a pradakshninapatha in the closed order, having a garbhagrha, an arthaman-

tapa, a mahamantapa and another 16 pillared open mantapa probably of

a later period. The pillars in the inner mantapa are also devoid of

artistic features but the pillars outside of the mahimantapa reveal the

typical Cholan features as attested by the epigraphical records datable

to 13th century CE.

The Vimana^ a double storied structure, with an adhishtana padavarga,

prastara and a vimana, datable to the Chola period on architectural grounds,

has a karnakuta. panjara and a sala. To the top of the kar^akuta there

156


is a prastara in a sloppy manner. The vedika, the kantha and the sllkhara

are in octogonal i .e . Dravidian order. The closed pradakshina patha

is constructed with massive stone blocks datable to later times.

157

The constructional activities continued upto the Vijayanagara period

as evidenced by the incomplete dorways of the gopura on the south.

The doorways and the feminine figures, the padma motif on the vertical

doorjambs indicate the Vijayanagara style. The temple, upto the superstruc

ture is constructed with stone followed by brick upto the sikhara. Thus,

the temple belongs to napumsaka variety.

INUMELIA (INML 1 to 09):

Inumella, a tiny village in the Tpur taluq of Guntur district, lies

at 15° 18' on north latitude and at 80® 05' on east longitude, is reached

only by infrequent buse service from Narasaraopet.

The temple facing west is entered through the galigopuram. In the

clockwise direction there is a 5mall shrine housing God Anjaneya in the

chamber constructed at a height for the purpose. Next to the shrine

of God ^ ja n e y a , there is a huge inscribed boulder badly mutilated.

On the north there are two chambers housing the loose sculptures. On

the south-west corner, facing east, there is a big room storing the vehicles

of Lord Bhavanarayana• At the centre of the court yard, there is a

dhwajasthambha.

On plan the temple consists of a garbhagrha, an arthamantapa an^'d

a mahamantapa. Vertically the temple has an upapitha, a plain padavarga

and a superstructure with modern architectural features^ owing to a number

of renovations took place as attested by the boulder inscription dated

to 18th century CE. On stylistic features and architectural grounds,

such as pillars and ceiling, the temple is datable to Kakateeyan period.

The pillars that support the roof iin the mahaamantapa have neatly executed

aswapadas. The square pillars with a circular disc, ghataphalika and

padma are in the typical Kakateeyan order, as seen in the. Tripurantakam

temple. In the patta (the angular portion of the pillar) there are figures

of swans, musicians and certain other designs. The serpent hoods on

the podika are noteworthy. The mahamantapa is arranged with crossed

diagonal stones one above the other, as found in many of the Kakateeyan

temples, (eg ., Bejjamki). In the first course of the diagonals, there

are yali figures executed in vertical manner. In the bottom portion of

the "Konavattamulu" the figures of swans are carved in realistic and

architectural manner. In the chadaravatta portion there are freizes of

swans on all four sides. The top portion of the ceiling is arranged

within a single stone with a sixteen petalled flower and four kirtimukhas

are executed in thefour concerns. The inverted buds in the bottom portion

of the konavatta and the ceiling slab are carved uniformly.

The doorways of the entrance to the main temple are executed

in the typical Kakateeyan order. The vertical frames over the sill and

the lintel are. intricately carved with fine workmanship. The dwarapalas

on both sides of the doorway stand to be the examples of iconographic

features of the day. There is an "ashtadala padma" design in the lalata-

bimba portion, carved as in many Kakateeyan temples as at Ghanaput,

Hanumakonda etc. The entrance at the ardhamantapa is plain with two

dwarapalas on either sides. The lintel preserves the Gajalakshmi motif.

The temple belongs to the napumsaka variety, for it is built of stones

upto the superstructure level followed by bricks upto the sikhara.

PADARTHl (PORT 1 to 6)

Pidarthi is a small hamlet on the sea coast, eleven kilometres

from Ongole railway station, on the east. There is a moufossil service

from Ongole to Kothapatniiii village, and Padarthi is 3 Kms from Kothapatnam

village on the north lying at 15° 26' on the north latitude and at 80°

11' on the east longitude.

According to the local legend the temple of Lord Bhavanarayana

was a living structure 50 years ago. Due to some holocaust the residents

of the village Padarthi had migrated 3 Kms away towards south and have

constructed a new village by name Kothapatnam. At present the temple

is completely in ruins. The garbhagrha has been excavated by thieves

and the mulavigraha has been broken. As seen through the ruins, the

temple facing south on plan has a garbhagrha, an ardhamantapa. There

is a (broken) dhwajasthambha and the galigopura seems to have

been constructed in the recent times before the temple is abondoned.

Vertically the temple has a padabandha type of adhishthana,

a padavarga, prastara, karnakuta, pratara and sikhara. The mouldings

of the adhishthana have an upana, jagati, kumuda, kantha and pattika.

The padavarga portion has four pilasters with simple designs. The pras

tara has diminiished artistic features. The first storey has an elevated

karnakuta, panjara, sala with a rectangular sikhara, again followed by

a panjara and karnakuta resembling the architectural features of late Vijaya-

nagara temples. The vimaha sikhara is in octogonal plan of Dravidian

order, with koshtas on the eight corners. Further details cannot be

studied since the sikhara is broken.

159

Externally there are stucco decorations in the prastara viiriana

portions. The erotic figure in stucco is noteworthy. The doorways

of the arthamantapa are later additions eventhough there are two dwarapa-

las and a Gajalakshmi motif in the lalatabimba. On the right side of

the temple complex there is a mantapa with a chandra^ila (now broken)

might have been used for the conduct of religious services. On the

left of the temple complex beyond the outer prakara wall there is a

pond (now in ruins) perhaps used like koneru or a pushkarani for the

sacred bath of the Lord. The temple belongs to " stree variety” i .e . ,

built completely of bricks.

PATTISAM (PTSM 1 to 7)

Pattisam is picturesquely situated on Devakutaparvatham overlook

ing the Papi hills in the heart of river Gouthami, a tributary of river

Godavari, Pattisam is about 3 Kms from Polavaram and 25 Kms from

Kovvoor railway station, lying at 17° 13' on the north latitude and at

81° 33' on the eaast longitude.;

/Pattisam being a Saivaite and a Vaishnavaite centre as well,

the temples of this Kshetram are of Lord Virabhadra in the form of Linga

with the marks of two arms ;that appear to have embraced the lingam;

/Goddess Bhadrakali, in the awe inspiring female form; and of Lord Sita

Rama, Added, there is a small temple containing two stone images of

women called anistri (a widow) and punistri (woman with a living hus

band) . The temple of Lord BHavanarayana facing west, on plan, consists

of a garbhagraha, an artha mantapa and a maha mantapa. The mahamantapa

is a closed one with two entrances on west and south. As such there

does not exist any prakara wall.

160

The temple has a three storied vimana of nagara order datable

to twelfth and thirteen centuries CE, on the stylistic grounds, having

a small upapitha of vedibhadra type, an adhishthana, padavarga, prastara

and sîkhara. In the adharasila of upapitha the mouldings of upana,

padma, kantha, kampa and kapota are noticed. The adhishthana belongs

to manchaka variety without kumuda and has an upana, padmajagati, kampa,

kantha and kapota. The padavarga starts with a vecli, aswapada, sthambha-

bhaga, kalaâ, kudu, phalikapadma and podika. The prastara contains

an uttara, valabhi, kapota and prativarga.

The first storey has a karnakuta, a hara and a sala vis- a-

vis. In the hara portion there are two koshthas as well in karnakuta

and mukhasala portions, crowned by keertimukhas. The prastara of the

first storey has the same mouldings those are found in the prastara as

described earlier. The second storey also closely follows the same archi

tectural pattern i .e . , kutas and koshthas as arranged in the first storey.

The sikhara has a broad vedika, a vimana kantha, a sikhara and a stupi,

the finial. The mouldings of the upapitha are executed beautifully.

In adhishthana portion the projections are noticed at the karnakuta, hara

and sala portions. The padavarga has half-relief pillars in the wall

portion having the usual members of aswapada, sthambha, kuda, phalika

and podika. The recessed hara has along keertimukha placed on a pillar.

The three koshthas resembling a miniature shrine, are provided on the

three sides of the sanctum. The prastara of the first storey, contains

dikpalas In stucco mounted on their vehicles. Four lions are placed

on the comers of the vedika. At the centre of the sîkhara four keerti

mukhas are found on the four sides. The mantapa, supported by four

pillars, contains the architectural features of the pilasters that are in

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the wall portion of the garbhagraha. The temple is constructed entirely

with brick and lime mortar, excepting the pillars and the roof slab

made of stone, belonging to stree variety .

NARA5ARA0PET (NRPT 1 TO 3)

Earlier known to be "Atluru", Narasarabpet, named after "Narasa

Ravu", the father of Malraju Venkata Gunda Narayani ravu, a philonthophist

of the areaj lies at 16° 16' on north latitude and at 80° 03' on east longi

tude. According to the traditional accounts related to the temple, in

1784 CE, the same philonthrophist who was also the local ruler, having

heard of the greatness of the Lord Bhavanarayana had constructed a temple

in Narasaraopet. The temple as today, is a totally renovated construction.

The galigopuram of the temple is facing east, whereas the Lord along

with Goddess Sri Devi and Bhu Devi is facing south, housed in a small

room. In the mid of the hall there is a dhwjasthambha. The thorough

renovations made to the temple did not leave anything of architectural

importance providing clues for the study of the historical styles, even

in the absence of any epigraphical records.

CHINNAGANJAM (CGJM 1 to 05)

Chinnaganjam^ situated at 15° 43' on the north latitude and

at 80° 16' on the east longitude, is a small village in between Chirala

and Ongole bus rout^ and on the Vijayawada-Madras main broadguage

railway line, in the Chirala taluq, Ongole district. As is seen today

the temple of Lord Bhavanarayana is facing east with a galigopuram and

a dhwajasthambham in the mid of the courtyard, in the ruined condition.

The temple has a garbhagraha, an antarala and a mahamantapa. Vertically

the temple has aggraded and undistinguishable mouldings mostly convered

by earth. The prastara, karnakuta, prastara and the sikhara refer to

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late Vijayanagara structures. The mahamantapa is a closed one, roughly

executed with rubbled masonary. There are eight koshthas to the eight

corners in the vimanakantha datable to post-Vijayanagara period. The

image of Goddess R'ajyalakshmi is housed in a chamber on the right of

the chamber of Lord BhavanSrayana. According to the narrations of

the Pujari,the temple was fully renovated about 150 years ago by a local

philonthrophist. Adjacent to the dhwajasthambha there is an inscribed

stone datable to thirteenth and fourteenth centuries CE, on Palaeographic

grounds, which is undecipherable.

AMRTHALURU <AMLR 1 to 07)

/Amrthaluru, named after the principal Saivaite deity of the

village Lord Amrtheswara, is situated about 40 Kms from Tenali, on the

south at 16° 07' on north latitude and at 80° 42' on east latitude, in

the Tenali taluq, Guntur District.

The temple complex at Amrthalur houses the images of Lord

_ / _ _

Madanagopala, Lord Sita Ram in addition to Lord Bhavanarayana in indivi

dual shrines. All the temples in the complex are completely modem

structures datable to the early part of the nineteenth century CE. The

temple of Lord Bhavanarayana facing east has a garbhagrha, an antarala,

and a mahamantapa. Vertically, the temple has a plain upapitha, and a

plain padavarga, prastara, karnakuta, prastara, vedika, kantha, sikhara

and stupi. The padavarga and the adhishthana are devoid of any worth

studying features of architecture. But the mouldings of the prastara

imitate the Chola features. The vimanakantha and sikhara are circular• *

and belong to vesara style. The doorways are also of the very modem

period. The image of Goddess Rajyalakshmi is housed in a chamber

left to the Lord. These temples are built of brick and lime mortar,

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hence classifiable under Stree temple .

Sabbayagudem, situated at 16® 50' on the north latitude and

at 80° 15' on the east longitude, is about 10 kms in the north near Nandi-

gama on the Vijayawada-Hyderabad. national highway, in Krishna District.

The temple dedicated to Lord Bhavanarayana is purely a contemporary

construction of 1940s. As narrated by the Chirman of the Temple Trust

Board, the temple was constructed, fillingup the vacant convex land in

the mid of the village. The temple has an outer prakara wall, entered

through the northern gateway. In the mid of the court yard, there is

a dhwajasthambha and a small chamber housing the image of God Hanuman.

The image of Lord Bhavanarayana is housed in a small square cell with

a four pillared square mantapa. Neither the garbhagrha nor the square

mantapa contain any architectural features of worth studying.

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SABBAYAGUDEM (SBGM 1 to 03)

CHAPTER - V ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURE, the science...

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