Chapter Two

Egypt and Israelp. 52-91

Continuity and Change in Egyptian History

• Egyptian society developed slowly• Was inspired by the rhythms of the Nile River• Society’s goal was stability, not change• Any change was slow and cautious

Geography: Life on the Nile• The wealth of Egypt was based

solely on the Nile River• Very little rain, so the flooding of

the Nile was important• The Nile comes the White Nile and

Blue Nile, fed by summer monsoons in Ethiopia

• Flooding of Nile between July and October, leaving rich alluvial soil which makes for productive land

• Nile’s flooding predictable, so Egyptians able to plan with some certainty planning and harvesting of crops

The Nile Delta and the Faiyum• The area in which the Nile

empties into the Mediterranean Sea is the Nile Delta

• The Delta had most of the major centres of Egypt

• Lake Moeris is the centre of an oasis known as the Faiyum

• Through irrigation, the Faiyum was the third largest area of settlement and agriculture

Deserts and Egypt’s Isolation

• Egypt is between two inhospitable deserts, the Western Desert and the Eastern Desert

• The deserts protected Egypt from invasion, and isolated it from outside influences

• Important sources of minerals and building supplies– Copper– Gold– Tin– Alabaster– Limestone– Amethyst– Natron

The Mediterranean

• Egypt’s outlet for trade• Large trade network established and allowed

Egypt to get a wide range of goods• Also an exchange of cultures – for example, art

and architecture of the Greeks

The Rise of the Nation of Egypt

• Unified by King Menes about 3100 BCE

• Egyptian history divided into three eras– Old Kingdom

• 2686 BCE – 2150 BCE

– Middle Kingdom • 2050 BCE – 1700 BCE

– New Kingdom (Golden Age)• 1550 BCE – 1070 BCE

The Old Kingdom• Prior to 3100 BCE, Egypt was a

collection of unorganized societies

• Lower Egypt (the Nile Delta) was symbolized by the red crown

• Upper Egypt was symbolized by the white crown

• King Menes united the two kingdoms in 3100 BCE

• The King was the ruler of all of Egypt and was considered a god

The Old Kingdom continued• By the Fourth Dynasty (the fourth

family to rule Egypt), there was trade with much of the Mediterranean– Copper in the Sinai– Timber from Syria– Wine and oil from Crete– Potter’s wheel from Mesopotamia

• Greatest symbols of the Old Kingdom are the Pyramids of Giza– Built by Khufu, Khafre, and

Menkure between 2600 and 2500 BCE

Imhotep: an Egyptian Genius• Considered a genius who lived during the Third

Dynasty (2686 BCE-2613 BCE)• His contributions were so great that he was

essentially deified• Right hand of the Pharaoh Djoser• First non-royal whose life has been recorded and

passed on through history• Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt, the first

after the King of Upper Egypt, administrator of the great palace, hereditary lord, the High Priest of Heliopolis, Imhotep the builder, the sculptor, and the maker of stone vases

• Founder of Egyptian medicine• Architect who designed and supervised the

construction of the world’s first stone construction

Step Pyramid of Djoser

• Created by Imhotep• Immortalized in stone every

aspect of life within the royal palace about 2650 BCE through stone images

• The Step Pyramid was the first piece of monumental architecture created by an artist

• Designed to capture the essence of the life of a Pharaoh

The Middle Kingdom• As local and provincial officials became increasingly powerful, the

strong central government of the Old Kingdom broke down• Resulted in 150 years of civil war – known as the First

Intermediate Period• By 2050 BCE, Egypt was reunited under Theban kings• Eventually moved their capital to Memphis led to a rise in their

provincial god – Amon• During the Middle Kingdom, merges with the Sun god Re – Amon-

Re• Pharaohs encouraged social mobility of members of the middle

class, which discouraged the ambitions of local princes 2 centuries of peace and prosperity

External Relations: The Hyksos Invasion

• Egypt periodically invaded by the Hyksos from what is now Syria and Palestine

• Egyptian army no match to improved bows, horse-drawn chariots, and bronze weapons of the Hyksos

• For 150 years, the Hyksos ruled Egypt using the existing Egyptian infrastructure

• Once the Egyptians mastered the Hyksos’ new technology, they were able to drive the Hyksos out of Egypt

The Role of Trade in Promoting Change

• Trade network was centred on the Mediterranean Sea, but went as far as Northern Europe, subtropical Africa, and the Near East

• Through trade, ideas, forms of artistic expression, technology, and building methods were spread

• Egyptians owed much to Mesopotamians for their concepts of math and writing

• Early Greek art and medicine owed a lot to Egypt• Julian (Roman) calendar borrowed from the

Egyptians

Political Structures and Tradition

• Central to the government was the god-king• Pharaoh was seen to be the earthly embodiment of the god

Horus, son of Amon-Re• This partial divinity of the king allowed him to mediate

between the gods and people, perform the religious rituals central to Egyptian beliefs, and remain separate from his subjects and rule with divine right

• Few challengers to the king’s authority• Even though he had absolute power, the Pharaoh needed to

rule with Ma’at (equilibrium of the universe)• Kings attempting to alter society radically would be seen as not

ruling with Ma’at and this could lead to civil war

Succession

• Pharaoh passed on the throne to the eldest son born of the Great Royal Wife who was usually the eldest daughter of the previous Pharaoh and sister of the ruling Pharaoh

• If no son with the Great Royal Wife, would go to the son of a secondary wife, who would then marry the Great Royal Daughter (or maybe even the Great Royal Wife herself)

Government• The Pharaoh owned all the land of Egypt, the people, and their

possessions Any personal wealth was seen as a gift from the Pharaoh• The government officials advised the pharaoh, enforced the laws,

pleased the gods, oversaw construction of royal monuments, sought trade opportunities, and collected taxes

• Scribes were important as they recorded the actions of the Pharaoh and kept stock of supplies

• Often, a scribe filled the role of vizier or prime minster who were advisors to the king and responsible for overseeing the entire administration of government and head of the judiciary– Under the vizier were government officials who collected taxes, supervised

agriculture and the granaries, coordinated trading expeditions, oversaw public construction, ran the justice system, and supervised matters of public health

Legal Traditions• Egyptian law governed by religious principles• Believed that law was infused into the world by the gods at the

time of creation• The goddess Ma’at personified the essential foundations of

Egyptian law – truth, righteousness, an justice• The goal of all people was to find and maintain the correct

balance and order in the universe• Generally a law-abiding people• Laws were fair and humane, and were equally applied to all

people• Emphasized the protection of family• No codified body of law – law was based on precedents

Egyptian Punishments

• Punishments could be quite severe• A severe punishment would act as a deterrent • In some cases, disgrace was more effective than death• Minor crimes were often punished with 100 lashes and

forced labour in the mines• Escape attempts could lead to ears and noses being

amputated• Corrupt officials had their hands amputated• Those who released military secrets had their tongues cut

out• Also many options for the death penalty

Economic Structure

• A relatively simple economy based primarily on agriculture, but there was a complex system of trade developed

• The Pharaoh retained absolute control over the means of production and the distribution of wealth

• Egyptian prosperity and stability were dependent on abundant harvests and the ability to manage food supplies in order to survive years of poor harvests.

Public works

• Agricultural production was organized to provide a stable food supply for both the living and the dead

• Any surplus would be used to trade• Public works needed an enormous amount of

labour, most of which came from the poor who had little control over their own lives

Egyptian Commerce

• Most trade carried out through the barter system• Coinage would not become common until the Roman

era• When trade became more complex, they developed a

refined system of barter, which used an arbitrary standard (initially wheat) against which all goods were measured

• After around 1580 BCE, Egyptians used gold, silver, and copper as an arbitrary standards and introduced a system of weights and measures

Egyptian Skilled Trades

• Skilled trades were passed from father to son• Children would learn the trades of their parents• Artisans would pass on their secrets to their

children• Artists did not work on their own, but instead in

teams, which lead to anonymity• Same system was used by artists as by builders

of monuments

The New Kingdom

• The Golden Age of Egypt• Dominated by larger-than-life individuals

Hatshepsut• Women rulers were not common

as the king was believed to be the son of the god Re and the queen was seen as the daughter of Re.

• These roles were not interchangeable

• When her husband Tuthmosis II died, Hatshepsut became regent for his son

• She decided to rule not as regent, but as ruler herself as a female king

Hatshepsut continued• Her statutes show her wearing a

beard to symbolize her power• Her reign was seen as a period of

peace, prosperity, and stability• She expanded trade and sent a

trading expedition to Punt (Somolia)• Built beautiful buildings, such as the

temple at Deir al-Bahari• Ruled for 15 years until her stepson

reclaimed the throne• Tuthmosis III ordered all references to

Hatshepsut as a king removed.

Tuthmosis III

• By the time he regained the throne from Hatshepsut, Tuthmosis was in his twenties

• He had spent his time training in the military

• Is knows as the “Napoleon of Egypt”

• Much of the wealth for the New Kingdom came from tribute from people conquered by Tuthmosis

Egyptian Military Traditions

• Had one of the best-trained armies in the Near East• Weren’t warlike, but needed an army to keep

neighbours trying to seize the wealth of Egypt• Didn’t like to fight abroad as Egyptians didn’t want

to die far from home and not be buried in Egypt• Mercenaries made up a significant part of the army• Egyptians used the powers of the gods to ensure

their victory

Akhenaton’s Challenge to Authority

• Began his reign as Amonhotep IV• Worked on reforming Egyptian

religion• Promoted the worshipping of

only one god, Aton/Aten• Took name “Akhenaton” – he

who serves Aton• Built a new capital city called

“Akhetaton” – Place of the Glory of Aton

Akhenaton continued• Had the temples of other gods closed• The people of Egypt were expected to

worship the royal family while the Pharaoh worshipped Aton

• Wrote hymns for his new religion• Akhenaton encouraged realism in art,

and is portrayed with a pot belly, long limbs, and an odd-shaped head

• Also showed scenes with his family• Because of his obsession with the new

religion, Egypt’s power waned and the civilization began to crumble

Tutankhamun• Was probably the son of Akhenaton and a minor

wife• Came to power at about 9 years old• Married his half-sister Ankhesenpaton• Within a few years of his reign, changed his name

from Tutankhaton to Tutankhamun and worked with his officials to return to the traditional Egyptian religion and returned the capital to Thebes

• Died at the age of 18 from a blow to the head• Tomb was found by Howard Carter in 1922 – the

first intact royal tomb every found

Ramses II

• Ruled 60 years after Tutankhamun for 67 years

• Constructed more monuments than any other Pharaoh, including Abu Simbel (pictured to the right)

Continuity in Egyptian Religious Traditions

• Egyptians were a deeply religious people for whom the sacred and the secular were inseparable

• The religion of Egypt had it basis in the worship of nature deities which led to gods having animal characteristics

• Gods with human forms were then added, and often had animal characteristics

Myths and Legends in Ancient Egypt

• The earth was created from a primeval hill emerged from the water of chaos

• The most significant god to emerge during the Middle Kingdom was Amun

• Also important was Anubis, Osiris, Horus, and Thoth

Intellectual Life• Each individual had a ka, ba, and akh• Infants were placed in a mother’s womb after being created on a potter’s

wheel by the god Khnum• Khnum also made a spiritual duplicate called the ka, which was stored in

the heart, and at death, was separated from the body and would inhabit the individual’s tomb

• The ka would need items such as food, clothing, perfume, and furniture• The ba was a person’s character and was depicted as a human-headed bird• When someone died, his or her mummy needed to be transformed into a

form that could exist in the underworld, called the akh• Ma’at was essentially order, truth, and justice, and only by living in

accordance with Ma’at, could you achieve harmony with the gods and be assured entry into the afterlife,

The Afterlife

• The afterlife would be a duplicate of their best moments on Earth

• Egyptians would be engaged in the activities they enjoyed most, such as fishing, hunting, feasting, and sailing

• Death was not to be feared• The concept of an afterlife was common to all social

classes.• There were two basic requirements:

– The body must be preserved in a lifelike form– The deceased must be provided with all the items necessary for

a life in the hereafter so that the ka would survive

Egyptian Burial Practices

• Needed to preserve the body to participate in the afterlife• Mummies were originally made when bodies were buried

in pit-graves in the hot, dry desert• As burial practices became more elaborate, the tombs

were more elaborate• Because the tombs were sealed, bodies were not

mummifying, so an artificial method needed to be created• Mummification was costly and time-consuming, so only

royalty and nobility could afford the best methods.• Peasants had to rely on natural mummification

The Mummification Process• 1. Remove the brain through the

nostrils with an iron hook• 2. A priest cut on incision on the

left side and removed all the internal organs, but the heart, which was left in place because it was the home of the ka

• 3. The liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines were cleansed and then preserved in natron and then placed in four separate canopic jars

Mummification continued

• 4. Body was washed with wine and the cavity stuffed and then covered with natron for 70 days

• 5. Once dried, the body was washed with oils and spices, the mouth and nose were cleansed and stuffed with linen, and the eyelids were stuffed with small onions or linen pads. The body incision was closed and covered with a plate, sometimes gold

• 6. the body was wrapped in several layers of linen that had been covered with resins and oils. Amulets and jewelry were hidden amongst the layers.

An Egyptian Funeral• Funerals of wealthy people were long and elaborate• Long period of mourning• Female relatives, as well as paid mourners, would bare their breasts and

walk through the streets crying aloud• Male relatives would also have bare chests and pound their chests in sorrow• Then the body would be taken to be embalmed• After mummification, the body would be put on a sledge and taken to the

tomb• Canopic jars would go on a second sledge• At the rear of the procession would be servants carrying the possession of

the deceased• The priest would touch the mouth and eyes of the mummy and then the

body was lowered into the tomb, which was then closed

Pyramids

• Pharaohs had to be buried in tomb that reflected their status as living embodiments of Horus

• Symbolized the primeval mound

• Over 40 pyramids in Egypt, mostly from the Old Kingdom

Pyramid Evolution• Began as mastabas stacked on top of

each other• Burial chamber underground• Pyramid construction reached its climax

with King Khufu• Took 23 years and 2.5 million stone

blocks to build• Eventually realized that pyramids were a

bad mistake, so they began to build hidden tombs in the Valley of the Kings and Valley of the Queens near Luxor

• Tombs were elaborately decorated with wall paintings of scenes from The Book of the Dead

Temples• Dedicated to the gods• Were massive sandstone structures• Were designed to be experienced from

the inside during a ceremony• Basic features:

– Monumental gateway– Roofless colonnaded court– Great hall with a ceiling resting on massive

sandstone columns– Private sanctuary of the god

• Part of a larger complex• Largest was the Temple of Amun at Karnak

Continuity and Conventions in Egyptian Art

• Three keys factors that shaped Egyptian art:– Conservatism– Virtually all art was

produced for religious purposes

– Pharaoh was the chief patron and subject of the art

• Remained unchanged for three thousand years

Sculpture

• Egyptian sculpture ranged in size from small models to large statues such as the Sphinx

• Generally looked straight ahead and were not engaged in any activity

• Subjects showed no emotion

Carved Relief and Painting

• Carved relief and paintings were used to show the gods the character of the deceased and to illustrate the activities he wanted to enjoy in the afterlife

• Carved reliefs are pictures that are cut into stone

• Paintings were used when the tomb walls were not good enough for carving

Rules of Egyptian Art

• Not concerned with perspective• Used mathematically precise paintings and reliefs to

convey the necessary information• Realism not a concern• Contrived stance• Disproportionate size of the figures• Used false transparency to show what was inside

items• Job of the artist was to capture for eternity the

essence and character of the deceased

Daily Structure: Daily Life in Egypt

• The bountiful harvest of the Nile and the isolation caused by the deserts gave all members of Egyptian society a relatively comfortable existence

• Artisans, merchants, traders, or labourers would all have lived in a one-story mud brick home that had four, square rooms with window slits to ensure privacy and cool shelter from the hot midday sun

• Furnishings would have been simple

Ancient Egyptian Social Structure

Agriculture

• The Nile dictated life in Egypt• When the Nile flooded, dams and canals had to be

maintained and repaired• As soon as surveyors had marked out the land with ropes,

labourers sowed the seeds• Barley, wheat, onions, leeks, lettuce, radishes, gourds,

melons, peas, and lentils were grown• Animals used to churn up the ground and stamp in the seeds• Tax collectors and scribes would calculate and assess taxes• Harvest would end up in the landowner’s kitchen, the town

market, or used as payment for labourers’ work

The Family

• Children were fed and dressed simply and were allowed few extravagances

• Mothers or sisters cared for children until they were about 4-6 years old and then they were sent to be educated

• Children were educated by priests in a classroom or by their father who would pass on his trade or occupation

The Role of Women• Women were well treated and enjoyed considerable legal rights• Shared the same legal rights as men, including the right to own and

dispose of land and property, the right to seek a divorce, and the right to initiate a court case or serve as a witness

• These rights allowed women economic independence• Women did not hold important titles, had little political power, and

were usually illiterate• The home was the wife’s domain• Egyptian women faced few restrictions in public• Woman’s main function was to bear and raise children• Women dreaded infertility and would make offerings to goddesses

of fertility and childbirth to ensure many children

The Role of Men

• Head of household and on the inheritance to his children

• Not restricted in the number of wives he could have, though usually just one

• Was a labourer, craftsman, or official, and this occupation was passed on to his sons

• Change was not encouraged because this involved risk

Clothing of the Commoner

• The labourer wore as little as possible because of the heat– A loincloth or nothing at all– Maybe a wig to cover their heads

Children and servant girls usually wore nothing but an amulet around their neckWomen wore long, close-fitting robes made of a light, almost transparent linen that was easy to clean and good protection against the heat

Going barefoot was preferable

Foods and Festivals

• Fall time was the season for festivals as the food supply had been secured for the next year

• May type of festivals, including religious festivals, political events, the butchering of an ox, or the end of a successful hunt

• A room would be decorated with flowers and perfume and many in-season dishes would be served– There would be an abundance of food that people would

be able to choose from

Clothing and Jewelry of the Upper Class

• Jewelry was a means of personal expression• Upper class men wore a loincloth, but covered it

with a belted, linen tunic with sleeves, and also wore sandals

• Women wore fine linen robes in bright colours and the softest cloth was reserved for the queen

• Jewellers were not bound by artistic conventions, so innovation was found– Used gold, silver, agate, jasper, garnet, amethyst,

turquoise

Cosmetics

• Fashionable eyes were almond shaped, with eyebrows and eyelids made up in blue, green, or dark grey

• Men and women applied the eye makeup for two reasons:– Beauty– Protection from the sun

• Heads would be shaved because it was cooler in the sun– Wigs would be worn for protection from the sun

Stability Through Education

• All children, regardless of social standing, received some education

• One goal of the education system was to ensure that the youth grew up to exhibit self-control and good manners

• By fourteen, children were working in their parents’ occupations

• Upper class boys were also taught reading and writing– Two types of writing: the rewriting of poetry and prose and

business writing– Also learned a lot of mathematics

Science and Technology

• Egyptians created what was needed and refined it until it was practical and could be used efficiently

• Examples include writing, medicine, mummification, and a calendar

Writing• Known as hieroglyphics• Most likely borrowed from the Mesopotamians• By 3100 BCE had a fully developed written language that had ideograms

(symbols that express a whole word or idea) and phonograms (symbols that suggest a particular sound)

• By the New Kingdom, there were 700 hieroglyphs in use• Impractical for every day use, so they were adapted into a form of

handwriting known as hieratic writing• Further refinement of hieratic occurred around 700 BCE

– Known as demotic and was used mostly for secular matters

Last use of hieroglyphics was 394 CEIt was not until the 19th century that Jean Francois Champollion cracked the code

Hieroglyphics

Medicine

• Oldest text found was from 2000 BCE• Texts were a mixture of observation, medical and surgical

descriptions, diagnosis, and prescriptions• Often included magic and religion• There was a belief that disease was a punishment by the gods• Bandages, splints, and disinfectants used, and wounds were

stitched shut• As medical knowledge was considered sacred and

unchangeable wisdom, there was stagnation in the development of further knowledge as it was not seen as necessary

Egypt’s Legacy

• Was the dominant political and cultural force in the Near East for 2000 years

• Influence spread throughout the Mediterranean

• Made advances in art, architecture, and technology

Ancient Israel

Ancient Israel

• According to the Old Testament, nomadic tribes entered Palestine around 1900 BCE

• Each tribe was led by a patriarch, Abraham being the most famous

• According to the Bible, God appeared to Abraham at Harran, “Leave your own country, your kinsmen, and your father’s house, and go to a country that I will show you. I will make you into a great nation.”

• When Abraham reached Shecheem in Canaan, God appeared again and said, “I give this land to your descendants”

• Abraham’s grandson, Jacob, organized the people into 12 tribes, which settled in Egypt, Caanan, and other areas

Moses

• Moses led the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt– Ramses II was building a large number of

monuments, and much of the labour was supplied by conscripted foreign labourers

– They were forced to serve in the army, till the fields, pave the roads, build temples, and construct a new palace and two new cities

Moses Continued

• Moses organized the tribes of Israel into a confederation bound by a covenant (solemn agreement) with a god named Yahweh

• He received the Ten Commandments from Yahweh, which were a body of laws based on conduct, which started “Thou shalt have no other gods before me”

• Beginning of monotheism for the Israelites

Establishment of Kings

• The Israelites established themselves in Palestine, and in 1230 BCE, led by Joshua, they invaded Canaan and took the city of Jericho

• Still no central government and the tribes drifted apart

• About 1020 BCE, Saul became the first king of the Israelites and led them against their greatest enemy, the Philistines

• David, Saul’s successor, captured the city of Jerusalem

Solomon• King David’s son was a wise and

skillful administrator• Is credited for writing some of

the Bible, including Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon

• Able to maintain peace through alliances and by increasing the size of his army

• Built the Temple of Jerusalem to house the Arc of the Covenant

• All that is left is the western wall, known as the Wailing Wall

After Solomon

• Following Solomon’s death, the Kingdom of Israel split in two

• Northern part – Israel• Southern part – Judeah• Israel conquered by Assyrians in 722 BCE and the

leaders dispersed throughout the Assyrian Empire ten lost tribes of Israel

• In 586 BCE, Judah fell to Chaldea, or New Babylon, and the captives deported to Babylon

Nebuchadrezzar II• King of Babylon from 605-562 BCE• His reign is included in several books

of the Bible, the historical works of the Roman-Jewish writer Josephus, and in the Apocrypha

• Had an immense capacity for wanton destruction and brilliant rebuilding

• His army was always on the move, taking over Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Judah, and Egypt

• Captured Jerusalem twice– Virtually nothing was left standing in

Jerusalem– Everything was burned to the ground

• Was a skillful diplomat and built many monuments

• Built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon

The Evolution of the Jewish Faith• Spiritual ideas of the Israelites have influenced much of

Western culture• The Covenant with Yahweh and the Hebrews was that the

Hebrews were to worship Yahweh as their only god, and they in turn, were to be Yahweh’s chosen people and promised the land of Caanan

• Yahweh is an all-powerful and all-knowing god who created the world and then stood outside of it

• He was often jealous, vindictive, and intolerant, but he was a god who cared for all classes, and all individuals

• The Hebrews believed their god intervened in human affairs and forgave people who regretted their wrongs

Jewish Faith continued

• Religion of the people, and was not imposed from above

• Leaders could not force people to obey laws• Had many prophets• God would prove his love for his people by

providing a Messiah (a person with divine power) to lead the nation of Israel

History Continues to Unfold

• Jewish culture and religious beliefs have influenced all the ancient cultures of the Near East

• Many of the traditions of the Israelites live on today among other major religions

• Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all find their roots in the spiritual beliefs of the ancient Israelites

Rites of Passage• Bar Mitzvah – son of the commandment• Between 516 BCE and 70 CE, age 13 plus a day was deemed

the age a Jewish boy becomes a full member of his community and were held responsible for observing all the commandments (613 of them)

• Must also observe the fast days (e.g. Yom Kippur)• Status in the count for a minyan (the quorum of ten required

for community prayer)• Eligibility for aliyot (being called to read from the Torah)• The right to take part in religious services• Is now a ceremony in which the Bar Mitzvah blesses and reads

from the Torah• Bat Mitzvah is for girls, and occurs at 12 years old