Chapter Seven:

Social Process Theories

Social Process Theory

Based on the process of socialization The interactions people have with various organizations,

institutions, and processes of society Criminality is a function of the above

All people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, have the potential to become delinquents or criminals

Critical Elements of Socialization

Family relations Divorce

Family Deviance Parental efficacy Child Abuse and Crime

Educational Experience Peer Relations Institutional Involvement and Belief

Religion

Effects of Socialization on Crime

A positive self image, learning moral values, support of parents, peers, teachers, and neighbors can help to combat inducements to crime Living in deteriorated areas

The more social problems encountered during the socialization process, the greater the likelihood that youths will encounter difficulties as they mature

Types of Social Process Theories

Social learning theory Social control theory Social reaction (labeling) theory

Social Learning Theories

Belief that crime is a product of learning the norms, values, and behaviors associated with criminal activity

Can involve learning the techniques of crime Prominent social learning theories:

• Differential association theory• Differential reinforcement theory• Neutralization theory

Differential Association Theory

Criminal behavior is learned Learning is a by-product of interaction Learning occurs within intimate groups Criminal techniques are learned Perceptions of legal code influence motives and drives Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and

intensity The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal

and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms involved in any other learning process

Criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values but it is not excused by those general needs and values because noncriminal behavior is also an expression of those same needs and values

Criticisms of Differential Association Theory

Fails to account for the origin of criminal definitions Assumes criminal and delinquent acts are rational

and systematic Tautological (circular in reasoning)

Differential Reinforcement Theory

The same process is involved in learning both deviant and conventional behavior

A number of learning processes shape behavior Direct conditioning (differential reinforcement) Negative reinforcement

People begin to evaluate their own behavior through their interactions with significant others and groups in their lives

Once people are accustomed to crime, their behavior can be reinforced by being exposed to deviant behavior models

Neutralization Theory

The process of becoming a criminal is a learning experience in which potential delinquents and criminals master techniques that enable them to neutralize conventional values and drift

Explains why many delinquents do not become adult criminals

Explains why youthful law violators can participate in conventional behavior

Basics of Neutralization Theory

Criminals sometimes voice guilt over their illegal acts

Offenders frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding people

Criminals draw a line between those whom they can victimize and those whom they cannot

Criminals are not immune to the demands of conformity

Techniques of Neutralization

Denial of responsibility Denial of injury Denial of the victim Condemnation of the condemners Appeal to higher loyalties

Are Learning Theories Valid?

They make a significant contribution to our understanding of the onset of criminal behavior

But still they are subject to criticism Fails to account for the origin of criminal definitions Fail to explain random acts of violence There is little evidence that exists to substantiate that

people learn techniques that enable them to become criminals before the actually commit crimes

Social Control Theory

All people have the potential to violate the law Society presents many opportunities for illegal

activity Truly is looking at why people obey the rules and do

not commit crime Positives

Explains the onset of crime Can apply to both the middle and lower classes Has been empirically tested

Why Do Some People Obey the Rules?

Self-control A strong moral sense that renders someone incapable of

hurting others and violating social norms

Commitment to conformity Develops with a strong commitment to conventional

institutions, individuals, and processes

Self Concept and Crime

A strong self-image insulates a youth from the pressures and pulls of criminogenic influences in the environment

Maladaptive social relations produce weak self-concept and poor self-esteem These individuals are more at risk to crime

Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory

Links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society

Assumes that everyone is potentially a law violator They are kept under control because they fear illegal behavior

will damage their relationships Without social bonds people are more likely to commit crime

The social bond has four main elements:• Attachment • Commitment • Involvement • Belief

Social Reaction (Labeling) Theory

Explains how criminal careers form based on destructive social interactions and encounters Interaction and interpretation are key

Behaviors that are considered criminal are highly subjective

Crime is defined by those in power Not only are acts labeled, so too are people Both positive and negative labels involve subjective

interpretation of behavior Explains society’s role in creating deviance Explains why some juvenile offenders do not

become adult criminals

The Labeling Process

Initial Criminal Act Detection by the Criminal Justice System Decision to Label Creation of a New Identity Acceptance of Labels Deviance Amplification

Consequences of Labeling

Labels produce a stigma Labeled individuals may join deviant cliques After someone is labeled, people begin to

reconstruct the culprit’s identity so the act and the label become understandable

Dramatization of evil

Primary vs. Secondary Deviance

Primary deviance is a norm violation or crime with little or no long-term influence on the violator

Secondary deviance is a norm violation or crime that comes to the attention of significant others or social control agents, who apply a negative label with long-term consequences for the violator’s self-identity and social interactions

Contributions of Social Reaction (Labeling) Theory

Identifies the role played by social control agents in crime causation

Recognizes that criminality is not a disease or pathological behavior

Distinguishes between criminal acts (primary deviance) and criminal careers (secondary deviance)

Contributes to understanding crime because of its focus on interaction as well as the situation surrounding the crime

Social Process Theories and Public Policy

Have had a major influence on policy-making since the 1950s

Promote conventional lines of behavior Focus on the family and schools to strengthen

bonds Reconfigure an offender’s self-image Diversion and restitution programs