CHAPTER OUTCOMES

In this chapter, you will examine Napoleon'srise to power in France at the end of theeighteenth century. You will also examine theinfluence of Napoleon-and the legacy of theFrench Revolution-on the rest of Europe. Bythe end of the chapter, you will

• analyse written and pictorial work for bias

• support a point of view with evidence

• assess the reliability of primary andsecondary source material

• analyse the relationship of a society'svalues and its laws

• make informed judgements about thecareer of Napoleon

• read and interpret a topographic map

• describe the factors that encouraged theemergence of nationalism

• assess the impact of the Napoleonic era

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

The Battle of WaterlooThe Battle of Waterloo marked the end of Napoleon Bonaparte's career. The self-proclaimed emperorof France had been a teenager during the French Revolution and had received his first militarycommission at age sixteen. From his earliest years, he seemed destined to make his mark on theworld.

In this chapter, you wil! read more about the Napoleonic Era and the history that led up to thishistoric battle. In this Window on the Past, you wil! eavesdrop on the battle itself from the perspectiveof a British lieutenant. The fight ended in a crushing defeat for the French by British and German forces.White this account is fictionalized, the events are accurate-even the young age of Lieutenant GeorgeSpencer.

After the Battle of Waterloo, Britain made Napoleon a prisoner of war. He was banished to theIsland of Saint Helena, where he died six years later.

The Twenty-thirdRegiment of Foot hadstayed in rank throughthe rainstorm. It was

still dark, but the soldiers driedthemselves off as best theycould, eating scraps of food fromtheir kit bags. Lieutenant GeorgeSpencer, aged seventeen,straightened his wet cloak. Heknew that the time to fightNapoleon was close at hand, butfor now they had to wait.Edwards, his servant, pushedforward a tin cup of warm soupand a biscuit. "Compliments ofCaptain Harrison, sir. He says hehopes you're the lucky one-onecup's got a bit of potato in it."George ate his biscuit anddrained the soup-no potato.

As the sun came up,Wellington's army began to takeshape. Soldiers along the linecleaned their muskets by firingthem into the air. A slight breezecarried veils of grey smoke downinto the valley. The popping ofthe guns seemed to cheer

everyone up. Many soldiers tooklong drinks from canteens filledwith rum. George said nothing.It was common practice for thesoldiers to drink heavily before abattle. Many would be dead bynightfall.

George heard the Frencharmy long before it appeared onthe opposite ridge. Soon, brighttroops of cavalry rode out ontothe field, and cannons wereplaced in position. Georgepicked out the red tunics of the

As George drank, the British soldiers readied themselves for battle.

89

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •feared Dutch lancers, the green-coated dragoons, the gold of thehussars, and the blue coats ofthe towering grenadiers. Thesounds of bands, and greatshouts of "Vive l'Empereur"rose in the morning air. It was aspectacle unlike anythingGeorge had ever seen.

The soldiers of the Twenty-third stood open-mouthed,stunned by the sight of such anenormous and confident armyled by the most famous generalin history-Napoleon. ThenSergeant Reilly broke the spell.He laughed and said, ratherproudly, in his thick northernaccent, "Say one thing for oldBonaparte. He can really put on ashow."

As George watched, columnsof French soldiers marched intothe valley, which was soonobscured by musket smoke.Then Napoleon ordered hiscannons to fire. There must havebeen almost a hundred gunslined along the far ridge and theyshook the whole valley. Cannon-balls whistled through theripening rye, thudded into thehillside, and killed many men.Almost immediately, Britishcannons began to fire back. Thepounding, rolling, thunderousnoise of the guns swept throughthe Twenty-third like a wave.

George watched as a Frenchcannonball seemed to bounce offthe rise and hurl directly towardhim. He did not duck or move, asure sign of cowardice. Instead,he gripped his sword and stoodin place, as all British officersand men were expected to do.The cannon-ball hummed pasthim and took the head off a manin the second rank. Georgewatched as soldiers pulled the

George would not duck even as the canon-ball grazed the side of his face.

and across the valley floor.British cannons fired volley aftervolley, but the French soldiersnever faltered. They came up theslope following the line of theroad, flags flying, bayonetsglittering in the sun-l 6 000soldiers cheering and shouting"Vive l'Empereur!"

The British soldiers heldtheir fire until the Frenchcolumns were forty paces away.George heard the orders abovethe battle noises: "Make ready,level, fire! Load, make ready,level, fire!" Hundreds of Frenchsoldiers fell, but still they surgedforward. Suddenly, a bugle callrang out.

French cavalry trottedforward in perfect formation,sunlight flashing on helmets,breastplates, and sabres. TheTwenty-third formed into adefensive square, the colours inthe centre. On four sides, threerows of soldiers waited, the first

body away, and moved forwardto fill the gap in the ranks. Then,at Wellington's order, theTwenty-third and the rest of thearmy moved back behind therise-safe, for a time, from theFrench cannon.

The Twenty-third formedinto two lines facing the enemy.Then, with what seemed like asingle, continuous movement,700 men reached into theirammunition pouches, broughtpaper cartridges to their mouths,bit off the ends, loaded, andrammed their charges home-thesmallest movements practised athousand times. It was a sourceof pride in the British army thatevery soldier could load and firefour times a minute-one shotbetter than the French army.

For several minutes, theFrench army remainedmotionless. Then, accompaniedby bugles, columns of infantrybegan to move down the slope

90

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •kneeling, muskets planted in thedirt with bayonets facing out.

Buglers sounded the charge.George's heart was beatingrapidly, his throat was dry, hispalms wet. He took his positionin the colour party and looked atSergeant Reilly, who winked athim.

"This'll be a day you can tellyour grandchildren about, MisterSpencer," he said. "Not manyhave the luck to be charged byBoney's cavalry under suchfavourable circumstances."

The infantry square, and theother squares nearby, were soonlike islands in a sea. Waves oftroopers swept by the steel of thebayonets. French dragoons closedin and fired their carbines andpistols directly into thedefenders. George's sabre was

shot out of his hand, and hisshako was pierced by a bullet. Aball passed through both sides ofSergeant Reilly's mouth, but hewas still holding up the colours.

When evening came, theTwenty-third was still fighting.Exhausted, they suffered fromhunger, thirst, and fear. Theyhad been in battle all daywithout any real rest, and mostwere at the limit of theirendurance. During a pause in theaction, water and some foodwere delivered, but the menwere almost beyond caring.

Napoleon had one morehand to play. He sent theImperial Guard into the fight.Hand-picked soldiers who wouldfight only on Napoleon's directorder, they had never lost abattle. The reputation of these

giants, with their gold ear-ringsand bearskin helmets, was suchthat the sight of them couldoften force Napoleon's enemiesto retreat. Now they weremarching toward the Twenty-third. The gunners wheeled theircannons forward and loadedthem with double charges ofgrapeshot.

The Guard came out of thesmoke in columns eighty-menwide, stepping to the steadybeating of the drums. At point-blank range, the Twenty-thirdbegan firing furiously. The Guardwavered and stopped. To theastonishment of the exhaustedsoldiers, they began to tum back.Sergeant Reilly grabbed George bythe sleeve-normally a floggingoffence. "Mister Spencer, it'sunbelievable. The Guard is

The mere sight of Napoleon's Imperial Guard would often send his enemies packing.

91

down with his back against it,and fell into a deep sleep.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

ACTIVITIES

3. Create a diary entry for one of the scavengers whobegan stripping the soldiers of valuables after thebattle was over. Was it wrong for people to takethese items? Why or why not?

4. Was George too young to fight? List several piecesof evidence from the story to justify your answer,whether "yes" or "no."

retreating. /I

As the Guard began to fallback, Captain Harrison orderedthe Twenty-third to attack.When Wellington's whole armycharged down into the valley,Napoleon's soldiers ran from thefield, dropping everything. TheBattle of Waterloo was over. TheTwenty-third halted, mostsoldiers so exhausted that theysank down where they had

stood. George collapsed to hisknees.

That night, Wellington'sarmy rested on the battlefield.Food was brought and fires werebuilt. Edwards appeared with aquick supper of biscuits and tea.Everywhere on the battlefield,scavengers were already at theirwork, stripping the dead andwounded of their valuables.George found a dead horse, sat

Exhausted, George fell asleep. The Battle of Waterloo was over.

1. George endured some terrible events during theBattle of Waterloo. Name three. In your opinion,which event was most terrible?

2. Soldiers often react automatically during a battlebecause of their training. What would happen ifthey paused to think about what they were doing?

92

Regiment of Foot: in the army, about 600foot soldiers commanded by a colonel

Wellington: Duke of Wellington, the leaderof the British army

cavalry: combat troops on horses

lancers: cavalry troops armed with longlances

dragoons: soldiers armed with shortmuskets, or firearms

hussars: soldiers on horseback armed withsabres and pistols

grenadiers: soldiers who throw grenades

rise: an area of rising ground

infantry: the foot soldiers in an army

volley: round of shots

bayonets: In Napoleon's time, bayonetswere long and wide, with a triangularblade. They could result in fatal woundsbecause the bayonets were usually dirty.Most soldiers feared a bayonet chargemore than gunfire.

breastplates: a piece of armour for thechest

square: a square-shaped formation

shako: a stiff military hat in the shape of atube, usually with a plume

grapeshot: a cluster of small iron balls firedfrom a cannon

flogging offence: one of the manyoffences for which a soldier could bewhipped. Some soldiers had to endureover one hundred lashes for relativelyminor offences.

scavengers: people who come to abattlefield to steal the belongings of thedead and wounded

1795 NAPOLEONSAVES THECONVENTION

1799 NAPOLEONAPPOINTEDFIRST CONSUL

1802 DEATH OFTOUSSAINTL'OUVERTURE

DEC 21804 CIVIL CODEBECOMES LAWOF FRANCE

1804 NAPOLEONCROWNSHIMSELFEMPEROR

1805 BATTLE OFTRAFALGAR;BATTLE OFAUSTERLITZ

PRUSSIANSDEFEATED ATTHE BATTLE OFJENA

THE SPANISHCAMPAIGNBEGINS

DEFEAT INRUSSIA

NAPOLEONABDICATES

BEGINNING OFTHE HUNDREDDAYS

BATTLE OFWATERLOO

NAPOLEONBEGINS EXILEON SAINTHELENA

I retained all the revolutionary interests, one of the sources of mystrength, and it also explains why I was able to set aside therevolutionary theories .... Through my propensity towards amonarchic form of government, I had preserved the revolutionaryinterests while banishing the revolutionary theories.

-NAPOLEON, ON THE ISLAND OF SAINT HELENA

Napoleon describes himself as having revolutionary interests, but of also admiring" a monarchicform of government." Is that possible?

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 93

corrupt: dishonest andgreedy

minor nobility: not thehighest-ranking nobles

formidable: impressive

phenomenal: remarkable,out of the ordinary

94 CHAPTER 4

The Napoleonic Era, however, isnot just about Napoleon's forcefulpersonality. Few people in Europe,and in the European and Africancommunities of North and SouthAmerica, were not affected by hisideas. While an ambitious, sometimesbrutal general, Napoleon also broughtpositive changes to many countries.Old, corrupt monarchies were sweptaside or were forced to adapt torevolutionary ideas. Napoleon createda new law code based on theprinciples of the Enlightenment(however, he did not believe in rightsfor women) and reformed the courtsystem. He also created new schoolsystems, universities, and hospitals.Even today, many countries operatein ways that are a legacy of theNapoleonic system.

INTRODUCTION••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••NAPOLEON'S EARLY CAREER

Napoleon felt lonely and isolated inFrance, and was often poor. But hismother, Laetitia Bonaparte, insistedthat the Bonaparte brothers andsisters support one another at alltimes. These family bonds proved tobe formidable. In 1804, whenNapoleon crowned himself Emperorof France, Laetitia refused to attendthe coronation because Napoleon wasfighting with his brother Lucien.

Napoleon became an artilleryofficer, which was a prestigious job.Officers in the artillery enjoyed top-quality education and training.Although Napoleon was anunremarkable student, aftergraduation he read to educate himself.He had a head for detail and a

NapoleonBonaparte came of

age at a time when societywas changing veryquickly-during the

French Revolution. For a youngperson, particularly one who wasambitious and talented, therevolution was a time of opportunity.The old rules and old ways of doingthings were gone, and a new societyhad not yet taken shape.

Napoleon was in an ideal positionto benefit from this uncertainty. Hewas a soldier with revolutionaryideas, but he also had a burning driveto be important. Intelligent andindustrious, he rose quickly to powerin France. As ruler of France, and latermuch of Europe, he had more powerthan almost any other person inhistory. In his lifetime, he inspiredboth admiration and terror.

NapoleonBonaparte was

born on the island ofCorsica, where his familybelonged to the minor

nobility. Corsica had once been partof Italy, but was ruled by Francearound the time of Napoleon's birth.When Napoleon's father, CharlesBonaparte, was invited to be part ofthe French government meeting atVersailles as a delegate from Corsica,Napoleon accompanied him toFrance. There he enrolled in militaryschool-a career choice that suitedhim perfectly.

When his father died in 1785,Napoleon, aged sixteen, was made thelegal head of the family. While hisfamily was respected in Corsica,

phenomenal memory. Later, hisgenerals were constantly astonishedwith his knowledge of the smallestdetails about the army. He seemed toknow exactly where every cannon,horse, and soldier was at any time.

Napoleon was a follower ofRousseau and supported many ideasof the French Revolution. In 1793, hehelped to recapture the city of Toulonfrom anti-revolutionary forces. Hissuccess attracted notice, and hebecame one of the youngest generalsin the army. However, Napoleon alsodeplored mob violence. In 1795,called upon to save the Convention(see page 83) from rebellious Frenchcitizens, Napoleon ordered cannonsto fire grapeshot point-blank into thecrowd. Hundreds were killed ormaimed. Napoleon later remarkedthat he put down the rebels with" awhiff of grapeshot." As a reward, hewas given command of a French armyfighting in Italy-a wonderfulopportunity to build his career.

Figure 4-1 This portrait of Laetitia Bonaparte, sitting beside a bust of Napoleon,was painted by Fran<;ois Gerard. How has Gerard managed to convey both theaffection-and tension-between these two family members? Examine theposition and angle of Laetitia and Napoleon and the use of space between andaround them to help you arrive at an answer.

Josephine met Napoleon in1795. She was not particularly

impressed by the general, whowas six years her junior. Assuredby her powerful friends ingovernment that Napoleon wasdestined to be important, shedecided that he would make agood husband.

Josephine had been a stylesetter in France ever since herprevious husband had beenexecuted during the Reign ofTerror. She lived by her wits andowed many people money. Shehoped that Napoleon could payoff her debts. In fact, Napoleonwas very poor. He was trying tosupport a large family ofbrothers and sisters, all ofwhom had expensive tastes. Hehoped that marriage to a

glamorous aristocrat wouldimprove his fortunes. Theymarried in 1796, just beforeNapoleon launched hiscampaigns in Italy and Egypt.

For many reasons,Napoleon came to distrustJosephine and the marriage wassoon in trouble. When thecouple failed to have a son,Napoleon divorced Josephineand married the Austrianprincess Marie-Louise, the nieceof Marie Antoinette. Their sonwas born a year later.Josephine, now definitelyoutside the royal family, lost allofficial powers. However,Napoleon still valuedJosephine's advice, and oftenasked for her opinion. She diedin 1814.

Figure 4-2 This painting of Josephine is bythe painter David, who created the portrait ofMarat shown on page 82. Why would anartist who painted the revolutionary Maratchoose the coronation of Napoleon andJosephine as a worthy subject?

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 95

republic: a country inwhich the power restswith citizens entitled tovote

spoils: the things soldierssteal from the peoplethey have conquered

DID YOU KNOW?Before he was defeated bythe British, Napoleon senthome many Egyptiandrawings and artifacts.Egyptian-styled buildings,furniture, and clothingbecame immensely popularin France.

NAPOLEON'SITALIAN ANDEGYPTIANCAMPAIGNSThe spirit of the French Revolutionhad spread quickly throughoutEurope. Everywhere, people hopedthat privileged classes and corruptgovernments in their own countrieswould be swept away. Many educatedyoung people were involved inpolitics, many as part of secretsocieties and political clubs.

Italy was no exception. TheJacobin clubs, which you read aboutin Chapter 3, operated secretly inmost the major cities. But Italians didnot want to be governed by theFrench; they wanted to be rid of theirunpopular Austrian rulers.Theyremembered their glorious past-theachievements of the ItalianRenaissance and of the Roman

D Campaigns of 1796-97

D Campaign of 1800

Site of battles of thecampaign of 1799

N

*LIGURIAN SEA

The Italian Campaign,1796-1800 o 50 100 km

1='=~I=I ====,'7

96 CHAPTER 4

Empire. When Austria went to warwith France during the FrenchRevolution, many Italians weredelighted. Realizing the importance ofgaining the support of Italians,Napoleon promised them freedom inthis 1797 address:

Peoples of Italy! The French 0army comes to break your f:' ';:chains. The French nation is ... ......••. ....a friend of all nations; receive .........•..•.

us with trust! Your property, yourreligion, your customs will be respected.We shall wage war like generousenemies, for our only quarrel is with thetyrants who have enslaved you.

In 1796, Napoleon won brilliantvictories in Italy, at Lodi, Castigliogne,and Arcole. He drove out the Austriansand set up new French-controlledrepublics. Unfortunately, his promise tofree the Italians was overstated. UnderNapoleon's command, the army viewedItaly as rich enemy territory. Frenchsoldiers stole everything they could-paintings, jewellery, even valuablesfrom ancient tombs. Napoleon paid forhis army from the spoils of Italy. Andhe shipped thousands of valuable arttreasures back to France for his ownuse. In the process, Napoleon madehimself very wealthy.

Buoyed by success, Napoleonasked the French government toallow him to capture Egypt in 1798.This move, he argued, would cutBritain off from her great and wealthycolony in India. Wary of Napoleon's

Figure 4-3 This map shows the location ofNapoleon's victories in Italy. Napoleon wonmany battles because he was able to move hisarmies quickly, even over great distances. Thishad the effect of confusing and exhausting hisopponents. In Italy, he inspired and energizedthe weary French army, and gave it victory aftervictory. He was nicknamed "corporal" becausehe took an interest in the smallest details ofmilitary organization and supply.

growing power, the government washappy to have General Bonapartetemporarily out of the way, and gaveits permission.

Napoleon crushed the oncemighty Egyptian army. The British,however, were not so easily defeated.Napoleon's navy was destroyed by the

British admiral, Horatio Nelson, atthe Battle of the Nile. Napoleonabandoned his army and escaped backto France. While the Egyptiancampaign was a failure by anystandard, it did little to affectNapoleon, who returned to Francemore popular than ever.

•ACTIVITIES

1. Some historians like to use psychology to try to 3. Napoleon thought he could harm England's tradeunderstand the motives of famous people in with India by invading Egypt. Was this ahistory. List three personal events that you think reasonable assumption? Consider the following:might have influenced Napoleon's life direction. a) Examine a map of Europe, Africa, and Asia.

2. a) Throughout Napoleon's early career, many With your finger, trace a route from England,

events occurred that resulted in professional around the Cape of Good Hope (in Africa), to

and personal opportunities. Display some of India. This was England's trading route with

these events, along with some of the India.

opportunities, in a chart form. An example is b) Examine the distance of India from Egypt. Howcompleted for you. far away are the two nations? What kind of

}- terrain would an army encounter crossingEvent Opportunity I Africa to India?Revolutionary Napoleon attracts c) Based on your observations and answers,forces recaptu re notice and is made decide whether Napoleon's plan wasToulon In 1793. general. reasonable.

4. Imagine you are a young Italian who has joined ab) Now do the same for your high school career Jacobin Club in northern Italy, but who wants to

to date. Think about your academic life as well resign after Napoleon's invasion. Write a shortas any extracurricular activities associated with letter of resignation, explaining why you no longerschool . support the French.

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••MAKING FRANCE STRONG

In1799, Napoleon helped to

overthrow the government ofFrance, then known as theDirectory. While France was busy

overseas and doing much to try toliberate other European countriesfrom oppression, its own governmentwas inefficient and corrupt. Afterseizing power, Napoleon adopted thetitle of First Consul and set aboutimproving French life in many ways.

One of his first tasks was to bringtogether all the legal reforms of theFrench Revolution and to harmonizethem with other existing French laws.Before Napoleon intervened, Frenchlaw was complicated and outmoded,the result of hundreds of years offeudalism. Although changes hadbeen made during the revolution,there was still no unified code of lawsfor the whole country.

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 97

civil law: the law thatrelates to a person'srights and liberties (asopposed to criminal law)

tariff: a tax

DI D YOU I<N<5W?Napoleon's educationalreforms were the first steptoward public education,one of the goals of theEnlightenment.He created new primaryschools, secondary schools,Iycees for academicallyadvanced boys, andtechnical schools.Scholarships wereestablished for brightstudents. It was against thelaw for a parent to refuse tosend their children toschool.

98 CHAPTER 4

When Napoleon became FirstConsul, he ordered his officials tocompletely reorganize laws into theCivil Code-a new book of law forthe nation. Napoleon did not writethe laws, but he made sure that theyreflected the kind of society hewanted. The Civil Code, also calledthe "Napoleonic Code," was one ofNapoleon's great achievements. Itguaranteed the right of equality underthe law, the right to hold property,freedom of religion, and freedom topursue work of one's choice.However, women lost rights underthe code (see page 99). ManyEuropean countries still base theirlaws and courts on the code. The codeis still used in civil law in theprovince of Quebec and the state ofLouisiana.

Napoleon also initiated a programof public works that employed many

people. He rebuilt and improvedFrench roads so that his armies couldmove quickly and to stimulate theeconomy. He built new harbours andcanals, filled museums with art andtreasures (often stolen fromconquered countries), and establishednew universities and schools. He keptthe price of food staples low.

Napoleon did not, however, createa strong French economy. Theeconomy only seemed stronger. Thenew jobs were created by his wars,and France enjoyed new wealthbecause it had stolen so many goodsfrom other countries. Yet industry athome was poorly developed. TheIndustrial Revolution, which you willread about in Chapter 5, was makingBritain strong, but was less significantin France. Napoleon protected Frenchindustry by placing high tariffs onimported goods.

Figure 4-4 Can you take a picture of just anybody? Quebec's civil code was recently revised toprevent photographers from snapping pictures in public without the permission of the subject. Thereform was based on French law, and is just one example of how the French Civil Code continues tohave influence in other countries today.

Chan[in[ Social Values?The Civil Code and Women Women

should stickto knitting.

:·0---:·::::::·:····\::. .::. •. .. •..• ..... .................

Societies, even modern ones, aredifficult to understand. They are

made up of many individuals whohave different lifestyles, ideals, andvalues. Nevertheless, in everysociety, the values held by amajority of the people constitute a"norm. n

One way to determine asociety's norms is to examine itslaws, which are often used toenforce values. If the valuesprotected by law are the valuesaccepted by a large portion of thepopulation, those laws will beaccepted.

Values, norms, and lawschange over time, of course. Thesechanges are of great interest tohistorians, political scientists, andsociologists.

For example, Napoleon's CivilCode took many rights fromwomen that had been won in theprevious decades. Napoleonthought that women were inferiorto men, even though they hadplayed a critical role during theFrench Revolution. His Civil Codeplaced women once again underthe control of their fathers orhusbands, who could order themto do whatever they wanted andpunish them if they disobeyed. Awife had no rights to property

The husband must possess the absolute powerand right to say to his wife: "Madam, you shallnot go out, you shall not go to thetheatre, you shall not receive (a visit)from such and such a person; for thechildren you bear shall be mine."

other than what she inherited, andrequired her husband's permissionto buy a house. It is obvious thatNapoleon had strict views on therole of women. His views were verydiscriminatory.

Napoleon influenced Frenchlaw by presiding over many of thecommittee meetings held to draftthe new Civil Code. "He took apersonal interest in the work,"recounts one source, " ... but hiscontributions were invariably onthe reactionary side." In this way,Napoleon's views on the rights ofwomen found their way into law.This shows how one powerfulindividual with forceful opinionscan sometimes change socialvalues. French laws about womenand property were not reformedagain for many years afterNapoleon's passing.

Were Napoleon's ideas shared

1. Napoleon insisted that the place for women was inthe home. How do you think educated women oftime would have reacted to this idea?

2. With respect to women's rights, was the CivilCode changed in a democratic fashion? Explain.

0·············.• • •••• °0

o •• •• ••

::" 0::: • °0 ::

......:~•.........../

by other people at the time? Wewill never know for certain, butthose women who had been activein the Enlightenment and in theRevolution must have felt betrayedby the Civil Code.

Had Napoleon wished toassess public opinion on the issueof women's rights, he could haveheld a referendum. During areferendum, the public votes Yesor No to a proposed law or legalreform. The proposal becomes lawonly if a majority of voters voteYes.

values: worthwhile principles

sociologists: people who study humansociety and human social relations

discriminatory: showing prejudice

reactionary: having a reaction, usuallypolitical and usually conservative

referendum: the submission of a law tothe direct vote of the people

WHAT DO YOU THINK?.......•....••..............••.•.•.....•...........••.................•....•..................•..••.......•..•........

3. A referendum on Quebec sovereignty was held in1996. What was the outcome? Did thisreferendum resolve the issue? Why or why not?

4. How does the Canadian system of electingmembers of parliament help to ensure thatCanadian laws reflect the values of Canadians?

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 99

~R(JSS~fJRRENT~

Napoleon and the Liberation of Haitifactor in Europe's rise to worlddominance. "

However, African slaves inHaiti were hopeful-they knewthat the French Revolution hadchanged the world. To many, itseemed that the French

Approximately 500 000African men and women workedon huge plantations in Haiti,growing sugar, coffee, cocoa, andcotton. Sugar cane was the mostimportant crop, and its productionexacted a terrible price. MostAfricans died after ten years ofplantation life because of thephysical demands of clearing theland, harvesting the cane (atmaturity, cane is taller than mosthumans), and processing the canejuice (see Figure 4-5).

Sugar was highly desirable inEurope. Like the newly fashionabletobacco, it was quickly habit-forming. One historian has noted:"We can only speculate vaguelyabout the extra energy which canesugar must have injected into thebodies and minds of Europeans. Itmust have been quite an important

Remember, brave Negroes,that France alone recognizesyour liberty and equal rights.-NAPOLEON'S DECLARATION TO

THE PEOPLE OF HAITI

Like many European countries,France had participated in the

slave trade in the seventeenthcentury and had sent many Africansto work in its colonies in the WestIndies. In later chapters, you willlearn more about colonialism, andhow it benefited Europe.

France's most importantCaribbean colony was Haiti(formerly st. Domingue). Claimedby Christopher Columbus in 1492,Haiti was French-controlled by thelate 1700s. By 1775, half of all thegoods imported to Europe from theWest Indies were going to France.

Figure 4-5 The pressing of sugar.After the sugar cane was harvested, itwas brought quickly to the mill, whereit was pressedand sent to the "boilinghouse." Despite the heat of theCaribbean, slavesworking at this endof the production line were expectedto stand day and night over boilingpots of sugar, skimming impurities offthe top with a heavy ladle. The sugarneeded to be transferred to at least fivedifferent pots before all its impuritieswere removed. Evenso, this processresulted in basic raw sugar. Fullyrefined white sugar-the variety put incoffee or tea-underwent furtherprocessing.

100 CHAPTER 4

@Rt!J5Y€--URRI!N~

continuedATLANTIC OCEAN

EAST FLORIDA

Gulf of Mexico Spanish territory

British territoryDeclaration of the Rights of Manand the Citizen (see page 78)ensured everyone's equality. Nolonger could a person be deniedhis or her rights because of race.Leaders within slave communitiesalso thought that France wouldoutlaw slavery.

When Napoleon came topower, he gave indications that hewanted to end slavery. Hepromised slaves and former slavesthat he would offer assistance ifthey would help him expel theBritish from Haiti. (England hadinvaded Haiti in 1793.) Of course,he had made similar promises toItalians and Germans, and hadbroken them.

Haitian leaders, such asToussaint L'Ouverture, Jean-JacquesDessalines, and Henri Christophewere forced to decide whether tofight for or against the French.Some were former slaves and allhad experience training soldiers andleading troops. They knew that adeal with the French was risky, butcalculated that the risk was worthtaking. They were utterly committedto the abolition of slavery. TheHaitian leaders helped the French bycapturing several towns from theBritish and forcing the British towithdraw by 1798.

But Napoleon was alarmed bythe events that were to unfold

BAHAMAS

Havana

•French territory

'/ ..•Merida

• tt,.. CubaE'Sr

INDIES

Hispaniola PuertoRico

•SantoDomingoHaiti GuadeloupeJamaicaBRITISH HONDURAS

Martinique

Caribbean SeaGUATEMALA

Figure 4-6 The West Indies in 1793

next. In 1801, Toussaint conqueredthe whole island of Haiti. Hedeclared it an independent countryand established a government withits own constitution. This eventcapped the first successful slaverevolt in world history, one thathad been brewing for ten years.

Napoleon knew that Haiti wastoo valuable to lose. He sent anexpedition of seventy warships and25 000 men to captureToussaint. The leader wastricked into returning toFrance and imprisoned inthe dungeon of Fort-de-Joux, where he died a yearlater.

As soon as Napoleon nolonger needed allies in theWest Indies, he passed lawsat home that supportedslavery .

But the clock could not beturned back in Haiti. It becameindependent in 1804-the firstcolony in the Americas, after theUnited States,to gain its freedom.At that time, all the French-about30000 colonists-were expelled.

colonialism: control of one part of theworld by a powerful country, often forcommercial advantage

abolition: the doing away with

......•.......•.......................•...•...•.•.•..............•..WHAT DO YOU THINK?1. Napoleon told the Africans of Haiti that he understood their

plight. Did he? Explain.

2. Before the uprising in Haiti, would Europeans have believedthat a slave revolt on this scale was possible? Why or why not?

3. Toussaint L'Ouverture was immortalized in a sonnet by theBritish poet Wordsworth. Read the sonnet (your teacher willsupply you with a copy) and discuss its meaning with yourclassmates.

Figure 4-7 Toussaint L'Ouverture led the slaverevolt in Haiti.4. Find out more about Haiti today. What is its political status?

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 101

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••N~POlEONTHE EMPEROR

Although Napoleon knewthat the French Revolutionhad secured his reputation,and although he liked some

of its goals, he tried to destroydemocracy in France. In time, hebecame much more of a tyrant thanany of the rulers of the ancien regime,even Louis XIV.

ancien regime: the" oldregime," in other words,France before therevolution

etiquette: proper manners

chamberlain: an official inthe court of a ruler

After Napoleon crowned himself emperor, hetried to hold court in the tradition of the ancien

regime. However, as the accompanying documentshows, Napoleon did not have the sociablepersonality of Louis XIV, and his attempts atreinstating court life often had hilarious results.

Figure 4-8 David's painting shows Napoleon crowninghimself emperor. Strangely enough, many Europeanmonarchs were relieved by this act. Why do you think thiswas s07

Napoleon looked back to theRoman Empire and copied theRomans in many ways. For example,the title "First Consul," whichNapoleon adopted after he overthrewthe Directory, was really a Romantitle. His views about women werealso influenced by ancient Romanlaw, which had affirmed the authority

0·············,," -".". ".... ."

\ ..~::.:..:.<../With the new Empire came a proper Court ...the etiquette of the old monarchy was revived;chamberlains, ladies-in-waiting, and othercourt positions were created anew ... Balls,suppers, and other court entertainments were revived.Unfortunately, neither the Emperor nor his courtiers quiteknew how to go about it all, so the ceremonies were stiff,and the atmosphere was one of often paralyzing dullness.

Napoleon himself was no help. He was given towalking up and down two lines of his courtiers, stoppingto tell the women that they looked old, or overdressed, orunderdressed, blaming the men for shortcomings andoccasionally flying into a rage ... with the Emperor's eagleeye watching it all, no one could relax-in exasperation,he accused his court of being morose, adding, "l order youto have fun." For once he was not obeyed.

102 CHAPTER 4

Not all French people supportedNapoleon. One person who

criticized him was Madame de StaelShe had been an important personin France even before the revolution(see page 67), when famous thinkersand politicians visited her salons. Awriter, she was a respected leader insociety. Although Madame de Staelhad welcomed the revolution, she,like other aristocrats, had beenforced out of France during theReign of Terror.

After Robespierre died,Madame de Stael returned toFrance, and to politics. She andNapoleon disliked each other, butbecause she was such animportant figure, Napoleon couldnot dismiss her.

During Napoleon's reign, shebravely criticized him and the thingsthat he did. She did not believe thatNapoleon was living up to theideals of the French Revolution.Instead, she implied, Napoleontalked about loving liberty in orderto promote his own U ambitiousviews" and "selfish intentions."

The emperor subsequentlyordered her to stay at least 60leagues from Paris, but she defiedhim. Napoleon tried to preventpeople from visiting her, andseveral important people, includingher friend Madame JeanneRecarnier, were exiled for so doing.

of fathers and husbands.In 1804, Napoleon crowned

himself Emperor of France. Asemperor, Napoleon had completecontrol of the country's affairs. Heeven had a secret police force, whichcould arrest and detain anyone foralmost any reason. But Napoleon alsoknew that he had to remain popularwith his people in order to succeed.He would not give them cause tooverthrow him.

A Portrait of Madame de StaelSurrounded in her father's house by all the celebrated men thenresiding in Geneva, and stimulated by the conversations carriedon in her presence and by her own genius, her intellect becameover-developed ... she felt strongly and her words were of fire.Her husband was an ordinary man, and she was neither a goodnor a happy wife. Swayed by her vivid imagination, too eager forfame and success, held in restraint by the social laws thatconfine women in a narrow circle, from which they can onlyescape by forfeiting their peace of mind, she defied andovercame these things, and suffered unspeakably in thisstruggle between the Interior forces that urged her on, 0and the social proprieties that failed to curb her. f =-- "-:':

-Madame de Remusat on Madame de stae; 1809 \. \ ..... : ./............

Napoleon believed that societyshould share his values. He exertedcontrol over the media, the law, andthe education system in order topromote these values. Newspaperswere told what they could print andwhat they could not-and they werenot supposed to criticize the emperor.This type of control is known ascensorship. Even school children hadto memorize lessons aboutNapoleon's greatness.

When Madame de Stael objectedthat a book she had written hadbeen censored, Napoleoncondemned the book and banishedMadame de Stael from France.

Madame de Stael paid for herprotests against Napoleon by beingisolated from society. It must havebeen difficult for her to live withoutthe help and support of her dearestfriends and family. For a time shesettled in England, where she waswarmly welcomed as an importantauthor and thinker-and a fellowenemy of Napoleon. After theBattle of Waterloo, she moved toItaly, and then back to France. Shedied in 1817.

league: an old measure of distance,usually equal to about 5 kilometres Figure 4-9 Madame de Stael

PI D YOU KNOW?':'JNapoleon's Roman stylereminded people that he wasboth a conqueror and a trueemperor-in the tradition ofJulius Caesar.Portraits andstatues of him show himwearing Roman robes andtogas, victory wreaths, andother Roman symbols.

censorship: the act ofpreventing certainpublications or pictures(including television andmovies) from reachingthe public

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 103

ACTIVITIES

1. Reread pages 97 to 98 and itemize Napoleon'sreforms under some broad categories, e.g., law.Beside each item place a "P," if in your opinionthe change was positive, or an "N," if it wasnegative. Compare your categories and ratingswith those of a partner.

2. Do you think Napoleon betrayed the FrenchRevolution when he became emperor? Imaginethat Marat, Robespierre, and Danton bringNapoleon to trial after his defeat at Waterloo.Make up a list of the charges these leaders of theFrench Revolution might bring against him. Howmight he defend his actions?

3. Who was Madame de Stael? Why did she criticizeNapoleon? How did Napoleon respond? Create ashort dialogue between Madame de Stael and theemperor.

4. Do you think governments are justified in usingsome kinds of censorship? Debate the issue ofcensorship with the class and record the pointsother members of the class make, both for andagainst.

countries in Napoleon's empire (seeFigure 4-10) were forbidden to tradewith Britain or with its colonies, suchas Canada. Any European port thatallowed British ships to dock wasseverely punished. So much legal tradewas cut off that goods became scarceand expensive. Smuggling became soprofitable that private vessels took therisk of "running the blockade."Napoleon's blockade hurt his ownempire as much as it did Britain.

Without control of the seas,Napoleon could never enforce hisContinental System. British shipssmuggled goods into Europe, andEuropean ships had to stay in port,which was bad for Europe's business.The British also made it illegal forships from other countries, such asthe United States, to trade withFrance or its empire. As a result, theContinental System helped start awar between Canada and the UnitedStates in 1812 (the War of 1812),which you will read about inChapter 10.

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••NAPOLEON AND EUROPE

Inthe 1800s, as he tried to expand

his empire, Napoleon would wagewar with most of Europe. Britain,with its powerful navy, was one of

Napoleon's greatest enemies. It gavemoney and supplies to any countrythat would fight him. In 1805,Napoleon planned to invade Englandwith thousands of troops, but his shipswere spotted and captured by LordNelson before the invasion couldbegin. Losing this battle meant thatNapoleon could never control the seas,which were dominated by England.

-=.:.=::-==-

THECONTINENTALSYSTEMNapoleon knew that Britain needed totrade with other countries in order toprosper. He tried to stop all its tradewith Europe with his ContinentalSystem. Through this system,

104 CHAPTER 4

CONQUERINGEUROPEAs emperor, Napoleon realized thathis power came from his militaryvictories. He would have to continuefighting to stay strong. He knew thatthe other rulers of Europe would tryto prevent him from achieving hisgoals, but he believed he could defeatany army. Using a combination ofspeed and surprise, he won majorbattles at Ulm, Austerlitz, and Iena,where he defeated the armies ofAustria, Russia, and Prussia, andforced their rulers to come to termswith him. By the time his enemieshad agreed to sign the Treaty of Tilsit,in 1807, Napoleon had gained muchground in Europe.

Napoleon explainshis motives for

expanding the empirein this quote. It isclear that hisambitions weregrand. Do Napoleon'swords indicate thathe was an excessivelycruel person? Howwould you describehis character?

I wanted to rule the0world, and in order ;' / \ ':to do this I needed \. .: ./unlimited power I .wanted to rule the world-whowouldn't have in my place? Theworld begged me to govern it ...

-Napoleon

Figure 4-10 This map shows how Napoleon's Continental System, in the form ofa blockade, cut Europe off from Britain.

ATLANTICOCEAN

N

*

NORTH AFRICA

D Areas barred

Dfrom importingBritish goods

RUSSIA

CRETE

~MEDITERRANEAN SEA a 200 400 km

I ! I

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 105

Readin[ a Topo[raphic MapIn battle, Napoleon knew how hecould use the landscape to his

advantage. One soldier wrote:"The topography of a countryseemed to be modelled in relief inhis head." In other words,Napoleon could visualize a three-dimensional model of thecountryside. Today, we usetopographic maps and computermodels to try to do the same thing.With this and his other skills,Napoleon knew exactly wheretroops could move quickly andwhere they could not.

Napoleon often used hisunderstanding of geography andmaps to beat his enemies. Attimes, he deliberately fought inareas where fog was common-sothat his troops could move withoutbeing seen. He did just this at thebattle of Austerlitz.

Austerlitz is a small town, nowcalled Slavkov, in what is today theCzech Republic. This area ofEurope was part of the AustrianEmpire in Napoleon's time. It wasimportant because it guarded theroad to the Austrian capital city ofVienna. Weeks before, Napoleon'sarmies had annihilated an army of70 000 Austrians, and he wantedto complete his victory. Napoleonhad to force his enemies-theAustrians and the Russians-tofight him, so that he could destroythem.

Napoleon could detect anenemy's weakness and makeinstant decisions to use it to hisadvantage. He was prepared toabandon part of the battlefield, if itwould lure his enemy into a trap.This is what he did at Austerlitz.

Napoleon knew he had toconvince the larger Austrian-Russian army that he was in aweak position before they wouldattack. He ordered the extra troopshe needed to stay away from the

106 CHAPTER 4

Landscape

Above, this landscape is shown as it appears in nature. Below, a topographic mapof the same region.

Topographic Map

Figure 4-11 Topographic maps show the hills, valleys, water, and other physicalfeatures of an area. Topographic maps have brown contour lines that showelevation. Water is shown in blue. The distance between the contour linesrepresents several metres of space-just how many depends on the scale of themap. Contour lines are farther apart where slopes are gentle and close togetherwhere the slopes are steep. This may seem odd, but if you examine Figure 4-12,you'll get the picture.

battlefield until the last moment. Inthis way, his army would looksmaller than it really was. Becausehe knew that commanders alwayslooked for high ground on abattlefield, Napoleon pickedAusterlitz: it had a large hill called"Pratzen Heights." He would usethis hill, and part of his army, as

bait. Austerlitz was also near anarea of low, swampy ground andhemmed in by artificial lakes. Thesetoo could be used as part of histrap.

Quietly, Napoleon sent ordersfor his extra soldiers to movetoward Austerlitz. They wouldarrive at exactly the right moment

continned

during the battle. Probably noother army in Europe could havebeen relied upon to move soquickly and surely. Napoleonplaced some of his troops on thePratzen Heights. As he hadpredicted, the Austrian-Russianarmy moved forward to takeadvantage of this poor showing.They drove his soldiers from theheights, forcing-so it seemed tothem-the French army intoretreat. It was too good to be true.

While most of the Austrian-Russian army was following theretreating French into the swampyland between the lakes,Napoleon's reinforcements arrived.They took Pratzen Heights onceagain and attacked the rear of theAustrian-Russian army. Meanwhile,the "retreating French," who wereactually some of the best soldiersin Napoleon's army, had turnedaround to fight. The Austrians andRussians were caught in the trap,and they were destroyed.

elevation: the height above some level

Figure 4-12 This view shows why contour lines on a topographic map are closelyspaced when there is a sudden rise in altitude.

oI

2

YOUR TURN1. What is the distance in metres

between the contour linesshown in Figure 4-11? Taketwo figures next to each otherto arrive at the answer.

2. Where does the hill begin to risesharply? Locate the point onFigure 4-11. How did you knowthis was the point?

3. How high is the highest point ofthe hill shown in Figure 4-11 ?

4. Look at Figure 4-13. Where doyou think Napoleon's army hid?Offer an explanation based onwhat you have learned abouttopography and militarystrategy.

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 107

Battle of Austerlitz, 1805

Frenchforces

Fake Frenchretreat

Russian-Austrianforces

Russian-Austrianretreat

.-. Hills

E-· :-1 Swamps

Figure 4-13 The Battle of Austerlitz

NAPOLEON, THE GENERAL

His presence on the field madea difference of 40 000 men.-THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON ON

NAPOLEON

The Duke of Wellington, whofought Napoleon at Waterloo,

knew of Napoleon's ability tointimidate enemies and motivatehis own soldiers.

Napoleon understood howsoldiers thought, and and used thisunderstanding to ensure victoryafter victory. His army was well-trained and professional. Manysoldiers had strong patrioticfeelings which had, in part, comefrom the French Revolution.Foreign soldiers in the army weretreated as equals and fought justas hard as French troops. They,too, thought of themselves asrevolutionaries.

Led by Napoleon, the Frencharmy could do amazing things,often travelling long distances tosurprise an enemy. In fact,Napoleon's army could travel twiceas fast as any other army inEurope. Napoleon slept briefly inthe evening then woke beforemidnight to work for hours onorders and plans for the next day.At the beginning of each day, hisgenerals and soldiers always knewexactly what they were supposedto do. Napoleon may have had hisfailures, but as a general, he wassupreme.

The key to Napoleon's successwas his large, motivated Grand»rmee. This army never lost faith intheir commander, even though hesometimes abandoned his soldiers.Napoleon left the French armybehind when he escaped fromEgypt, for example. But on manylevels he understood people verywell. He gave his soldiers fancyuniforms, badges, awards,traditions, good pay, and goodfood. He also led them to many

108

victories. The Grand Arrnee ofFrance saw itself as a winner, muchlike a Stanley Cup hockey teammight do today-and this feelingof superiority helped it win battles.

Many of the soldiers inNapoleon's army were not French,since conquered territories wereforced to send troops to fight aspart of his Grande Arrnee. Buteven these soldier soon came toidolize Napoleon.

Figure 4-14 This picture showsNapoleon visiting the Louvre Museumwith one of his highest-rankinggenerals, Marshal Ney. Napoleon'sgenerals were often outstandingsoldiers who had been promotedthrough the ranks-something thatcould not happen in other Europeanarmies, which were commanded byaristocrats. Why would Napoleon andhis marshal wear their military uniformsto visit a museum?

Marching forward into a hail of musket fire,while comrades were being killed or wounded allaround, could only happen if soldiers were well-disciplined. If the column did not break, it stood agood chance of breaking through the enemy lineand defeating opposing soldiers. How would youhave felt if you had been marching in one ofthese columns?

to motivate: to give people the will and desire toaccomplish things

standard: a flag or banner

Figure 4-15 Napoleon's soldiers attacked in columnsfifty- or sixty-soldiers wide, protected by cannons. Thesight of these columns, particularly that of the Guard-gigantic soldiers in tall bearskin helmets-terrifiedopponents. A picture of the Guard appears on page 91.

jl

Figure 4-16 This astonishing painting of Napoleon's Egyptian campaign (see page 96) showsNapoleon on horseback in the background and the Guard in the foreground, right. Try to identifythe standard bearers. What contribution would they be making?

109

THE NEW MAP OFEUROPE

Figure 4-17 This map showsthe boundaries of Napoleon'sempire in 1807.

After the Treaty of Tilsit, much ofEurope was divided into newcountries and provinces. Members ofNapoleon's family were mademonarchs of Italy, Naples, Spain,Sweden, Germany, and Holland.Napoleon demolished the old HolyRoman Empire, which had been inexistence for centuries. Parts ofGermany were made into the newConfederation of the Rhine. NorthernItaly was made into a single state,controlled by France. Napoleon'sministers reorganized much of Polandinto the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.Russia, Austria, and Prussia kepttheir own rulers, but becameNapoleon's allies. In all Europe, only

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*110 CHAPTER 4

Great Britain remained independent.Napoleon insisted that all parts of

his empire base their governments andlegal systems on those of France. In thisway, the French Revolution reachedmany other Europeans. Napoleonabolished serfdom, as well as theinherited privileges of aristocrats. Hereplaced old laws with the NapoleonicCode, and encouraged religioustolerance. As a result of Napoleon'sefforts, many features of the old feudalsystem were finally laid to rest.

Figure 4-18 The people of Germany welcomeNapoleon's soldiers.

BLACK SEA

o 200

- Added to the Confederation of the Rhine

D Added to French Empire

D Under French administration

D Small German states outside the Confederationof the Rhine

ACTIVITI ES

1. What was the purpose of the Continental System?Did it succeed or fail? Imagine that you are asenior advisor to Napoleon. You have been askedto prepare a memo outlining the advantages anddisadvantages of disrupting Britain's trade withEurope. Your memo should examine the impact ofsuch a move from the standpoint of Britain,France, and the rest of Europe .

2. Why do you think Napoleon was a successfulgeneral? List the personal qualities that you thinkgave him an advantage as a military commander.

3. Study the topographic map on page 106 andcreate a three-dimensional model of the area outof modelling clay or a material or your choice. Usepaint to denote water and other natural features.

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••THE RISE OF NATIONALISMWhat is the German [atheiland!Now name at last that mighty land!Where're sounds the German tongueWhere're its hymns to God are sung!That is the land,Brave German, that thy Fatherland ...

-GERMAN NATIONALISTIC SONG

When Napoleon's soldiers ofthe French Revolutiondefeated the great empiresof Europe, many of the

people he "conquered" were happy.They loved the ideals of the revolution:liberty, equality, and fraternity. Theyadmired how the people of France hadcompletely remade their country-they had thrown out a tyrant, LouisXVI. Hated aristocrats and landownershad been killed or driven out of France.The Declaration of the Rights of Manand the Citizen had given people morefreedom, justice, and democracy thanany other bill of rights in Europeanhistory. The French were justly proudof their country and of theiraccomplishments. They were a realnation, a people who shared the samelanguage, culture, history, and ethnicbackground.

This idea of a people creating anation-called nationalism-was

appealing to many people. In theAustrian Empire, for example, peoplespoke many languages and belongedto many cultures. Many resented theirAustrian rulers and took the new ideaof nationalism very personally. Theywanted "nations" of their own people,where their own languages andcustoms would be the norm.

Napoleon used these feelings ofnationalism to help him defeat theAustrian Empire, one of his principalenemies. Promising that he wouldhelp people who shared language andculture to create new nations, heworked to destroy the Austrian Empirefrom within. Of course, Napoleonalways placed France's interests first.

Nationalism was a new conceptwhen it appeared. People in theMiddle Ages, for example, did nothave nationalistic feelings. Instead,they would have identified with theirchurch and their social class. Whennationalism emerged, it was a forcethat could not be stopped. It was animportant concept in the nineteenthcentury, and it is an important ideatoday. Unfortunately, nationalismthat is too strong can become a kindof racism. Powerful feelings ofnationalism have helped to bringabout many wars, including World

memo: an official note orreport that communicatesinformation, usually in abusiness setting

nationalism: the beliefthat one's own country isthe best country

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA ",

Figure 4-19 After World War II, nationalismplayed a role in fostering independencemovements. As a result. many new independentnations were created. Right, Tunisia gainedindependence in 1952 after nationalists fought toend almost a century of French rule. Below, Serbiafought for its independence from the formerYugoslavia for many years.

Figure 4-20 This picture, bythe Spanish artist Goya,shows some of the horrors ofthe French invasion of Spain.Goya was one of the firstartists to expose cruelty andinhumanity through his art.

112 CHAPTER4

War I and World War II in thetwentieth century. Extremenationalism in Germany resulted inracial and religious persecution of theJewish people. Today, ethnicIIcleansing" in Bosnia is also the resultof nationalism. Some people feel thatnationalism is a destructive force.

LOSS IN SPAINNapoleon's success could not lastforever. Forces such as nationalism,which he had helped to unleash,would eventually work against him.The new French royalty, made up ofmembers of Napoleon's own family,was not accepted in the countrieswhere they were sent to rule.Disillusioned Europeans began toview Napoleon as a tyrant, and asmerely replacing one form of bad

government for another. Resentmentwas particularly strong in Spain, acountry where Napoleon's troopsproved to be brutal conquerors, ratherthan friendly saviours.

Spain had once had a mightyempire, but by the early nineteenthcentury it was no longer powerful.The Spanish rulers had helpedNapoleon when his armies attackedPortugal, Britain's trading partner, butthe Spanish people did not acceptNapoleon.

When Napoleon replaced theSpanish king with his brother Jerome,

in 1808, the Spanish people rebelled.In spite of cruel punishments andterror tactics, the Spanish refused tosurrender their homeland. Theyfought the French using guerrillawarfare, not the traditional pitchedbattles in which Napoleon excelled.When the British sent troops-accompanied by the Duke ofWellington-to help the Spanish, theFrench found themselves fighting afive-year war that they could not win.French morale plummeted, andNapoleon knew he had lost manysoldiers.

Figure 4-21 The "Maid ofSaragossa" was famous inthe last century for hercourage and leadership. Hername was" Augustina" andshe was about twenty-twowhen the French attackedher native city of Saragossa,Spain. Like many Spanishwomen, she was a memberof the guerrilla army thatresisted the invaders. WhenAugustina found that all thegunners on a section of wallhad been killed, and that theenemy was about to breakinto the city, she leapt overthe bodies of the dead andbegan firing the guns herself.Jumping on top of a cannon,she called her comrades tothe wall, vowing that shewould not leave alive untilthe siege was over. Herpatriotism served as anexample to other people inSpain. Enraged by thebrutality of Napoleon'stroops, they continued theirrebellion until France hadbeen defeated.

guerrilla warfare: warfarethat is loosely organized,including volunteersoldiers, surprise raids,etc.

patriotism: pride in one'scountry

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 113

Tsar: the Russianmonarchbefore the RussianRevolution of 1917

114 CHAPTER 4

THE RUSSIANCAMPAIGNNapoleon's ambitions caused him tooverreach himself and to lose theempire he had built. The disastrouswar with Spain did not stop him fromfighting elsewhere. Britain remainedhis enemy, and some countries stillremained outside the ContinentalSystem (see page 104).

One of France's allies, Russia, hadat first agreed to stop trade withBritain. However, the Tsar did nottrust Napoleon, and changed hismind. Russia refused to follow thepolicies of the French, causingNapoleon to declare war. Although heknew that fighting on Russianterritory would be difficult, Napoleondecided that Russia could be defeatedif the Russian army could be drawninto a decisive battle. And so it wasthat, in 1812, Napoleon assembledthe largest army in Europe at thattime (about 600 000 soldiers, withreinforcements) and led it towardsRussia.

Like most of Napoleon's armies,his fighting force was made up ofmany different nationalities-French,Dutch, Germans, Poles, and Italians.To ensure their loyalty, Napoleonpromised the soldiers of eachnationality that they would be able toform their own countries after thewar. He knew that nationalism wasbecoming a powerful force and usedthat knowledge skilfully. Napoleonalso continued to motivate his troopswith ideas about freedom andequality. Soldiers believed theemperor because many still thoughtof themselves as part of a greatrevolution in Europe. As fighters inthis revolution, they would make lifebetter for everyone-once the warswere over.

Napoleon hoped that he would beable to trap the Russian army and

destroy it, thereby forcing the Tsar tosurrender. However, the vast landmass of Russia made it almostimpossible for him to succeed. Inbloody battles at Smolensk and atBorodino, he defeated the Russians,but the Tsar refused to surrender.Weakened, but still able to fight, theRussians retreated, burning food andshelters as they did so. SinceNapoleon's army lived off the landand were far from their bases, theRussian strategy proved to beeffective and deadly.

Arrival in MoscowWhen Napoleon arrived in Moscowwith his army, he hoped that theRussians would give up. Instead, thecity was deserted. There were noRussians to surrender. After theRussians set fire to their own city, theFrench realized that their situationwas hopeless. The Russians had notbeen victorious, but they had foughtintelligently. Napoleon was baffled bysuch fierce national resistance. InOctober, he ordered his army toretreat, hoping to return to friendlierterritory before the terrible Russianwinter began.

However, Napoleon's troops hadbeen lured too far. The long retreatfrom Moscow destroyed the GrandArmee. Napoleon had lost hisconfidence. The soldiers, like robbers,carried away any loot they could find,even forcing peasants to carry thetreasures which had been stolen.Later, soldiers would dump theirwounded comrades out of carts, andleave them to die along the route. TheFrench had to feed on their own deadhorses for food-so long as the meatdid not freeze, because then it couldno longer be cut.

In bitter winter weather,thousands of soldiers froze to deathon the road. The Russians attackedthe retreating Grand Armee wheneverthey could. Cossacks-fierce riders

After the experience in Russia,the Grande Arrnee was a

shadow of its former self. Oneobserver described the retreatingarmy in the excerpt that follows.

.......[Tlhey saw in Napoleon's wake a mob of 0tattered ghosts draped in women's cloaks, odd f ( "; ~pieces of carpet, or great coats burned full of ,.:holes, their feet wrapped in all kinds of rags, they····· · .were struck with consternation. They stared in horror asthose skeletons of soldiers went by, their gaunt, gray facescovered with disfiguring beards, without weapons,shameless, marching out of step, with lowered heads, inabsolute silence, like a gang of convicts .

.:.... -

Figure 4-22 This illustration shows soldiers from Napoleon's army as they retreated throughRussia, starving, demoralized, and cold. Why do you think the soldiers would not simply surrenderto the Russians?

from the Russian region of Ukraine-raided at will. Straggling through thebattlefield of Borodino, where theyhad fought a few weeks before, thesoldiers saw 30 000 corpses, stillunburied and scattered across thelandscape.

As the Russian winter deepened,many more soldiers died of exposureand cold. Others deserted, hoping toreturn to their homes in various parts

of Europe. But the Russians continuedtheir attacks, and the French had tofight back. In the end, only 9000 outof the original 600 000 soldiers wereleft to fight. In December, when theGrand Armee had virtually ceased toexist, Napoleon abandoned it andreturned to Paris. He had no use for adefeated army. The Russian campaignwas a disaster from which theemperor would never recover.

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 115

Logistics is the science ofmoving people and

supplies. Napoleon wasconsidered a genius when itcame to logistics. Tounderstand the logistics ofNapoleon's invasion ofRussia, use the followinginformation, along with yourcalculation of the distancethe army had to travel toMoscow (see Figure 4-23), todetermine the quantities ofsupplies that would beneeded for the Russiancampaign. Remember thatafter you calculate thedistance, you must determinehow many days the invasionwould take. for ammunition

The Grand Armee: Numbers----_ ...•Soldiers (before reinforcements)

Horses (approximate)

Civilian drivers and other civilians

449 000

330 000

100 000

2 000

1 146

Wagons

Cannons

_ The Grand Armee: Logisticsof Russian C_a_m.;.;.:;.pa.;.i.:::g:...n__ ~ __ ...J

Daily supplies required

for 250 soldiers

for 250 horses

4 wagon-Ioads* of food and other supplies**

100 wagon-loads of fodder

60 000 cannon-balls (1 battle)

2 000 000 musket cartridges (1 battle)

* A large wagon held about 1000 kilograms.** A single military bakery could bake 60 000 loaves of bread a day.

o 50 100 150 kmI I I

~St. etersburg

tJlOS~"3 Moscow, BOTooino-'~ma _~_ ,~--..•.~.,;;

;; Malo- r..osfavetz.,.

Minsk- - Mogilev

GRANDEMPIRERUSSIAN • Fortresses

~ French advance

- ~ French retreat

The Russian Campaign, 1812WARSAW

Figure 4-23 This map shows the route the French army took when it invaded Russia in 1812. Itretreated along the same route. Perhaps this seems like a small distance, but it was not. The armycould march no more than 20 kilometres a day. To gain a better idea of the distance involved,measure the distance from the Rhine River to Moscow, then calculate the actual distance usingthe map scale. Now estimate the length of time it would take to reach Moscow.

116 CHAPTER4

Tula-

History is written by people.When we read history, we

should be asking ourselvesquestions about the author asmuch as about the people andevents being described. What isthe author's social background?What attitudes or ambitions mighthe or she have?

Answering these and otherquestions helps us to be activeparticipants in the study of history.

H. G. Wells was born in Britainin the nineteenth century. Hewrote The War of the Worlds, TheTime Machine, and other works ofscience fiction and is best knownfor these books today.

Wells also liked history. In1918, at the end of World War I,

Figure 4-24 H. G. Wells

he completed his book The Outlineof History. Like many people at thetime, Wells was shocked by theterrible casualties and destructionof World War I. His book isaccurate in the sense that theevents he writes about actuallytook place. But, like most historybooks, it is a secondary source.Wells did not actually observe allthe events he recounts.

Wells did have strong opinionsabout people in history. Read theselines about Napoleon:

And now we come to one of themost illuminating figures inmodern history, the figure of anadventurer and a wrecker ...Against this background ofconfusion and stress and hope ...appears this dark little archaicpersonage, hard, compact,capable, unscrupulous, imitative,and neatly vulgar ....

... He was of little significance tothe broad onward movement ofhuman affairs ... a thing like thebacterium of some pestilence[disease}. Even regarded as apestilence, he was not of supremerank; he killed far fewer people thanthe influenza epidemic of 1918 ....

Perhaps you noticed that Wellshad an excellent vocabulary, Heuses words such as "vulgar"(common or ordinary) and

"archaic" (left over from the past),and displays his knowledge togreat effect. Wells also held verystrong political views. He wantedto outlaw war, for example, and hewas a socialist. He expressed hisviews without reservation and didnot like to accept other opinions.

Many people think that thestudy of history is about memorizingfacts and dates. Nothing could befurther from the truth. In fact, thehistorian R. G. Collingwood went sofar as to say that anything that couldbe memorized was not history. Thisdoes not mean that we shouldn't tryto remember key dates in history. Itsimply reminds us that history isreally about trying to learn aboutpeople by looking at the things theyhave done. We can learn a lot aboutall of humanity in this way. First,however, we must interpret whatwe read, hear, and see.

secondary source: writing that usesother people's first-hand accounts ofan event as source material; not aprimary source

capable: able to do things

socialist: one who supports socialism, asystem in which all members of acommunity share the work and theprofits

interpret: to understand

tabloid: a newspaper made for easyreading, with many pictures and short,often sensational, stories

WHAT DO YOU THINK?..................................•.............................................•....................................

1. Which aspects of Napoleon's life does H. G. Wellsemphasize? What does the information tell youabout Napoleon? What does it tell you about H. G.Wells? Is the information reliable-or relevant-ineither case? Explain.

2. Suggest some reasons why H. G. Wells wouldinterpret Napoleon's life as he did. Review the textabove for clues.

3. The media create history by covering particularevents and making them seem important. How doyou think Napoleon would appear in today'stelevision programs and tabloids? What aspectsof his life would be regarded as newsworthy?

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 117

ACTIVITIES- -4. Examine the picture by the Spanish painter Goya on

page 112. Is this picture a reliable source ofinformation about the war? How do you know? Doesthe painting qualify as a primary source? Why or whynot?

5. Examine the picture of the French retreat fromRussia on page 115. Is this picture a reliable sourceof information about this disaster? How do youknow? Do you think Napoleon was in power whenthis picture was painted? Explain.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •ABDIC~TION ~ND EXIlE

1. Explain the meaning of U nationalism. U How didNapoleon help to spread feelings of nationalismthroughout Europe? Explain why you thinknationalism is a positive or negative force, or both.

2. What is the difference between nationalism andpatriotism?

3. How did the war in Spain weaken Napoleon'sarmy? Imagining that you are a French officer,write to Napoleon detailing recommendations thatyou think might help France in Spain .

The terrible defeat ofNapoleon's army in Russiahad seriously damaged theempire. Yet Napoleon was

still not ready to give up.Remarkably, his officials recruited anew army, and the French continuedto fight the Russians, Austrians, andPrussians, defeating them in severalbattles.

However, Napoleon's empire wasbreaking up, and his enemies weretaking bold steps against him.Madame de Stael, for example, wentto Sweden to encourage the new king,King Bernadotte, to resist the French.Bernadotte joined the forces who weresending troops to fight Napoleon.When Napoleon lost the importantbattle of Leipzig, the emperor wasdoomed. After a last battle near Paris ,Napoleon gave up his throne and wasexiled to the island of Elba, near Italy.In an emotional speech, he said good-bye to his Old Guard and asked themto remember him. Even in defeat, hehad the power to win the loyalty ofhis soldiers.

118 CHAPTER 4

THE HUNDREDDAYSNapoleon's abdication, his agreementto give up his title and powers,marked the end of the last stage of theFrench Revolution. The brother ofexecuted Louis XVI-Louis XVIII-was invited to be King of France. Thenew king was very unpopular. Amajority of French people weresupporters of the revolution, andthere were many supporters ofNapoleon, who were called"Bonapartists."

Louis and his advisors had verylittle understanding of the mood ofthe people. They made many badpolitical decisions, thereby destroyingwhat little support the monarchy had.Unbelievably, Louis wanted to revivethe concept of the Divine Right ofKings. When royalists began totorture and murder Bonapartists,people complained that the king andhis supporters had "learned nothingand forgotten nothing." Many peoplelonged for Napoleon to return.

As Emperor of Elba, a tiny island,Napoleon was unhappy. After just tenmonths in exile, he returned toFrance with a small force of 1000soldiers. When the road was blockedby royal troops, Napoleon walkedforward and announced that if theywanted to shoot their emperor, hestood before them. His influence wasstill so great that the soldiers cameover to his side. The commander,Marshal Ney, who had been one ofNapoleon's generals and who hadpromised to "bring Napoleon back ina cage," also joined his oldcommander. The fearful king and hissupporters were forced to leave thecountry. Napoleon returned to Parisand began to rebuild his forces. Hewould rule France for approximately100 days. Within months, he hadenlisted more than 300 000 soldiers.

The new army was highlyprofessional and included manymembers of the Old Guard and otherfamous regiments. When he failed tomake peace with England, Napoleonmarched his army toward Belgium,hoping to defeat the separate armiesof the allies before they could join up.

Figure 4-25 The Battle of Waterloo

In the battle of Waterloo, he almostsucceeded. In this desperate fight,British and German troops, under theDuke of Wellington, fought very well,and did not retreat. When the OldGuard was cut to pieces by Britishmusket fire, the French army wasrouted and Napoleon defeated.

to route: to force an armyto run wildly from theenemy, as opposed toretreating, which is acareful, well-disciplinedmilitary manoeuver

square: a square-shapedformation

•TH E BATTLE OFWATERLOOOne of the most famousstruggles in history, the Battleof Waterloo involved morethan 130 000 soldiers fightingwithin a relatively smallvalley. The slaughter wasunbelievable. Almost 50 000were killed or wounded. It ishard for modern people even toimagine the battle, whichlasted for a whole day. At onepoint, 12 000 French cavalrycharged the British lines, onlyto be thrown back byconcentrated musket fire fromBritish squares. For Napoleon,

Figure 4-26 Wellingtonscribbled this note to one ofhis commanders during theBattle of Waterloo. Howwould a commandercommunicate with troopstoday?

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 119

Eyewitness accounts ofbattles and other

catastrophic events canmake for exciting reading.The Battle of Waterloo hasbeen described many timesand by many people. Eachaccount is a fragment ofthe whole picture. Thisdescription, written by acaptain in the British army,describesthe action in asingle part of a battlefield:

diplomat: a representativeof government whoworks with othergovernments for thegood of his or hercountry

Viscount: a title of nobility

120 CHAPTER 4

I shall never forget the scene whichthe field of battle presented aboutseven in the evening. I felt wearyand worn out, less from fatiguethan from anxiety.

Our division, which had stoodupwards of 5000 men at thecommencement of the battle, hadgradually diminished down to asingle line ... The Twenty-seventhregiment were literally lying dead,in square, a few yards behind us.My horse had received anothershot through the leg, and onethrough the flap in the saddle,which lodged in his body ... Thesmoke still hung so thick about usthat we could see nothing ...

nothing met my eyeexcept the mangledremains of men andhorses ...

Presently a cheer ... madeeveryone prick up their ears; itwas Lord Wellington's long-wished-for orders to advance ...we ... charged through the hedge... sending our adversaries flyingat the point of the bayonet. LordWellington galloped up to us atthe instant, and our men began tocheer him; but he called out. "Nocheering, my lads, but forwardand complete our victory."

-Captain J. Kincaid, Rifle Brigade, atthe Battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815

•THE CONGRESS OFVIENNAThe defeat of the emperor left Francewithout a government, but LouisXVIII soon returned, supported byforeign troops. In the meantime, analliance of governments had formedagainst Napoleon, including Britain,Russia, Austria, and Prussia, to decidehow his old empire should be brokenup and governed.

The map of Europe was redrawnat the Congress of Vienna, which metfor the first time in 1814, a yearbefore the Battle of Waterloo. Theimportant participants were Mauricede Talleyrand of France, an importantdiplomat; Prince Klemens vonMetternich of Austria; ViscountCastelreagh of Britain; and TsarAlexander of Russia. After manydiscussions, France was allowed toretain her old borders, but Britaintook over many of its overseascolonies. Belgium and Holland were

it was the last gamble. Had theemperor defeated the Duke ofWellington's forces, his empire mighthave survived. As it was, the loss atWaterloo ended Napoleon's career.

SAINT HELENAProtected by troops of the Old Guard,Napoleon escaped from Waterloo. Atthe port of Rochefort, where he wastrapped by his pursuers, hesurrendered to a British navalcommander. Napoleon may havehoped that the British king wouldallow him to live in exile in England,as many other political refugees haddone. However, the rulers of Europewere so afraid of Napoleon, and of hispower to motivate supporters, that hewas exiled to a place from which noescape was possible. A British shiptook Napoleon to the island of SaintHelena, far away in the southAtlantic, where he remained aprisoner until his death in 1821.

made into one new kingdom, andmuch of Italy was given back toAustria. As far as it was possible, theeffects of the French Revolution, andof Napoleon, were cancelled.

Britain worked hard to make surethat the major countries and empireswere more or less equally strong,because a "balance of power" wouldprevent further wars. Tsar Alexander

o 250 500 km1 I

ATLANTICOCEAN

NORTH AFRICA

promised that all the rulers of Europewould work to prevent war through"charity, peace, and love."

It seemed as if the Congress hadmanaged to turn back the clock, butthis was not the case. The agreementcould not stop the forces of nationalismand the desire of people for freedom.Within a few years, Europe was onceagain tom by revolution.

DAustrian Empire

- Boundary of theGerman Confederation

--ACTIVITIES

1. What made it possible for Napoleon to return toFrance and to become Emperor again? Preparequestions that a TV reporter might ask the peoplewho welcomed Napoleon back.

2. Make a full-size recruiting poster for eitherNapoleon or the Duke of Wellington. Make surethat your poster is accurate for its time and that itexplains the advantages of joining the fight topotential recruits.

3. What happened to Napoleon after he lost theBattle of Waterloo? Do you think he was fairlytreated? Explain why or why not.

DID YOU KNOW?Even today, speaking of"meeting one's Waterloo"means that one has failed ina critical struggle.

Figure 4-27 Europe afterthe last meeting of theCongress of Vienna, 1815

4. The British commander at the Battle of Waterloo,Lord Wellington, once said that he would neverattempt to write an account of the battle. Why doyou think he felt this way?

5. Even after the Congress of Vienna, many people inEurope would have welcomed Napoleon back.Explain why you think this would be so. Was theCongress a complete success? What advice wouldyou have given a delegate to the Congress if youwere a ruler? An aristocrat? An ordinary citizen?

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 121

CONCLUSION

For almost two centuries, people have tried tounderstand the role of Napoleon in thehistory of Europe and the western world.Equally fascinating is the story of the

obscure military officer's rise to power. Thoseinterested in psychology often grapple with themotivation of a person who wanted to conquer theworld-to the exclusion of all else.

Yet it should not be forgotten that Napoleonchanged Europe. New views about society, broughtabout by the French Revolution, were introduced tothe lands he conquered. Perhaps he had selfishreasons for ridding Europe of feudalism andinequality, as Madame de Stael suggested, but hedid so nevertheless. Napoleon himself onceremarked that he believed in equality because ithad helped him rise to greatness. He remade lawsand gave people a new type of justice, which theyhad never before known. On the other hand, he

probably set back the cause of women's rights bymany years.

The sleeping force of nationalism was stirred byNapoleon. By promising brand-new countries to thepeoples of Europe, he set in motion events andforces that would result in World War I. Today,nationalism is still at work making history invarious parts of the world.

Napoleon was a remarkable individual possessedof energy, intelligence, and concentration. He alsocame of age in a time when these powers could findexpression. A child of the revolution, he rodehistory, which he understood very well. Like allhistorical forces, Napoleon left a mixed legacy. It iseasy to see him, as many do, as selfish and powerhungry. But it is also possible to defend himbecause of the positive changes that resulted fromhis conquests.

SUMMARY ACTIVITIES

1. Write a journal about life in Napoleon's France. Pretendyou are a man or woman who is strongly biased for oragainst the emperor.

2. Imagine that you have been asked to write a bookreview of H.G. Wells's The Outline of History. As oneparagraph in your review, support or rebut Wells'sassessment of Napoleon's place in history, using theinformation contained in this chapter. Be sure to injectsome of your own personality into the review-that iswhat makes a book review lively and interesting.

3. With another student, script a television interview inwhich Napoleon is asked to evaluate his strengths,weaknesses, greatest contributions to history, andwhat, if anything, he might change about his career ifgiven another opportunity. Present your interviewbefore the rest of the class with one student playingthe television reporter and the other playing Napoleon.The student who plays Napoleon could appear inperiod costume. You could repeat this exercise foranother figure in this chapter, for example, Madamede Stae!

1. Research the origins and development of onenationalist movement since the end of World War II(1945). You could begin by looking up the word"nationalism" in an encyclopedia. Write a brief reportbased on your research.

122

2. Write a story in which Toussaint L'Ouverture is one ofthe main characters. Your story should show yourunderstanding of the cause of African slaves in Haiti.