Chapter Nineteen: From Crisis to Empire. Political Overview from 1870 to the 1900 1873: Panic of...

Chapter Nineteen:Chapter Nineteen:From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire

Chapter Nineteen: Chapter Nineteen:

From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to EmpirePolitical Overview from 1870 to the 1900Political Overview from 1870 to the 19001873: Panic of 1873 triggers an economic depression that lasts until 18791873: Panic of 1873 triggers an economic depression that lasts until 1879

1876: Contested presidential election between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes of 1876: Contested presidential election between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden of New YorkOhio and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden of New York

1880: Republican James Garfield of Ohio elected1880: Republican James Garfield of Ohio elected

1881: Garfield assassinated and Chester Arthur of New York becomes president.1881: Garfield assassinated and Chester Arthur of New York becomes president.

1884: Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland of New York elected president1884: Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland of New York elected president

1888: Republican Benjamin Harrison of Indiana is elected president1888: Republican Benjamin Harrison of Indiana is elected president

1890: Sherman Anti-Trust and Sherman Silver Purchase Act enacted1890: Sherman Anti-Trust and Sherman Silver Purchase Act enacted

1892: Cleveland elected to presidency again; People’s Party is founded1892: Cleveland elected to presidency again; People’s Party is founded

1893: Panic of 1893 triggers a depression even worse than the one in the 1870s1893: Panic of 1893 triggers a depression even worse than the one in the 1870s

1896: Republican William McKinley of Ohio elected president against Democrat 1896: Republican William McKinley of Ohio elected president against Democrat William Jennings BryantWilliam Jennings Bryant

1898: War with Spain and annexation of Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines 1898: War with Spain and annexation of Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines

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From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire The Politics of EquilibriumThe Politics of Equilibrium

– The Party SystemThe Party System Stability: After the end of Reconstruction, the two-party system Stability: After the end of Reconstruction, the two-party system

was highly stable and relatively evenly matched: sixteen was highly stable and relatively evenly matched: sixteen Republican states and fourteen Democratic states, with swing Republican states and fourteen Democratic states, with swing states like New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois often states like New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois often determining elections.determining elections.

Stalemate: From 1876 to 1896, the margin between Democratic Stalemate: From 1876 to 1896, the margin between Democratic and Republican presidential candidates was 1.5% of the popular and Republican presidential candidates was 1.5% of the popular vote. Republicans tended to control the presidency and Senate vote. Republicans tended to control the presidency and Senate (excepting Cleveland’s two terms); Democrats mostly controlled (excepting Cleveland’s two terms); Democrats mostly controlled the House.the House.

High Turnout: From 1860 to 1900, presidential elections averaged High Turnout: From 1860 to 1900, presidential elections averaged 78 percent turnout of all eligible voters.78 percent turnout of all eligible voters.

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– The Party SystemThe Party System Disenfranchisement: Almost all blacks came to be disenfranchised Disenfranchisement: Almost all blacks came to be disenfranchised

during this period, women in most states could not vote, and some during this period, women in most states could not vote, and some poor whites in the South. (The territorial government of Wyoming poor whites in the South. (The territorial government of Wyoming was the first to grant the vote to women in 1869 and the first state to was the first to grant the vote to women in 1869 and the first state to do so when it was admitted to the Union in 1890.) do so when it was admitted to the Union in 1890.)

Regional and Cultural Basis of Party Identification: Regional, ethnic, Regional and Cultural Basis of Party Identification: Regional, ethnic, and racial identification had much to do with the era’s extreme party and racial identification had much to do with the era’s extreme party loyalty: Southern whites voted for the Democratic Party as the party loyalty: Southern whites voted for the Democratic Party as the party of white supremacy while blacks voted for the party of Lincoln. of white supremacy while blacks voted for the party of Lincoln. Middle-class Protestants of the North tended to vote Republican, Middle-class Protestants of the North tended to vote Republican, while Catholic immigrants tended to vote Democratic. while Catholic immigrants tended to vote Democratic.

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– The National GovernmentThe National Government Limited Role of Federal Government: It delivered Limited Role of Federal Government: It delivered

mail, maintained a relatively small military, mail, maintained a relatively small military, conducted foreign policy, and collected tariffs and conducted foreign policy, and collected tariffs and taxes. It stepped back from many of its Civil War taxes. It stepped back from many of its Civil War expansions (like rescinded the temporary income expansions (like rescinded the temporary income tax). The federal government was very limited tax). The federal government was very limited compared to the centralized national bureaucratic compared to the centralized national bureaucratic governments developing in Europe. governments developing in Europe.

Civil War Pension System: From the end of the Civil War to the early Civil War Pension System: From the end of the Civil War to the early 2020thth century, the federal government paid out pensions to the majority century, the federal government paid out pensions to the majority of males in the North, both black and white. But this pension system—of males in the North, both black and white. But this pension system—the first federal “entitlement” program—died out with the Civil War the first federal “entitlement” program—died out with the Civil War generation.generation.

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1888 cartoon satirizing the “pension pig”


From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire

The Politics of EquilibriumThe Politics of Equilibrium– Presidents and PatronagePresidents and Patronage

Limited Presidential Power: While symbolically important, Limited Presidential Power: While symbolically important, presidents wielded little power beyond the ability to award presidents wielded little power beyond the ability to award patronage (federal jobs) to supporters, with some 100,000 to patronage (federal jobs) to supporters, with some 100,000 to fill. Some positions, like collector of customs in a major port, fill. Some positions, like collector of customs in a major port, could be very lucrative.could be very lucrative.

President Hayes Ineffective: Hayes announced he would only President Hayes Ineffective: Hayes announced he would only run for one term, which lessened his power, and he was unable run for one term, which lessened his power, and he was unable to accomplish his major goal of establishing a civil service to accomplish his major goal of establishing a civil service systemsystem..

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– Presidents and PatronagePresidents and Patronage Stalwarts and Half-Breeds: Two factions arose within the Republican Stalwarts and Half-Breeds: Two factions arose within the Republican

Party to control patronage; it was largely driven by a grudge between Party to control patronage; it was largely driven by a grudge between two Republican leaders.two Republican leaders.

• Stalwarts: Led by New Yorker Roscoe Conkling, this group Stalwarts: Led by New Yorker Roscoe Conkling, this group rhetorically favored old-school machine patronage politics.rhetorically favored old-school machine patronage politics.

• Half-Breeds: Led by James G. Blaine of Maine, and rhetorically Half-Breeds: Led by James G. Blaine of Maine, and rhetorically favored reform, but sought to control patronage. like their opponents. favored reform, but sought to control patronage. like their opponents.

Garfield Elected: Veteran Ohio Congressman and Half-Breed was Garfield Elected: Veteran Ohio Congressman and Half-Breed was elected by a compromise ticket: a Stalwart, Chester A. Arthur of elected by a compromise ticket: a Stalwart, Chester A. Arthur of New York, a Stalwart, was elected Vice President. Won by a New York, a Stalwart, was elected Vice President. Won by a decisive Electoral College vote, though narrow popular margin.decisive Electoral College vote, though narrow popular margin.

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January 1881 cartoon from Puck magazine showing President Hayes leaving the “Civil Service Reform” baby on President-Elect Garfield’s doorstep.



– Presidents and PatronagePresidents and Patronage Garfield Assassinated: Garfield supported civil service reform in his Garfield Assassinated: Garfield supported civil service reform in his

early tenure, but only four months into his term, he was shot twice early tenure, but only four months into his term, he was shot twice while standing in a Washington railroad station. He lingered for three while standing in a Washington railroad station. He lingered for three months, but then died.months, but then died.

Charles Guiteau: The assassin was deranged office-seeker who had Charles Guiteau: The assassin was deranged office-seeker who had delusions of grandeur, believing an incoherent speech he wrote was delusions of grandeur, believing an incoherent speech he wrote was key in Garfield’s election (although he was a Grant partisan), and key in Garfield’s election (although he was a Grant partisan), and thus deserved a plum appointment.thus deserved a plum appointment.

Pendleton Act: Despite being a Stalwart, Chester Arthur broke with Pendleton Act: Despite being a Stalwart, Chester Arthur broke with Conkling when he became president and advocated civil service Conkling when he became president and advocated civil service reform. In 1883, Congress passed the Pendleton Act, which required reform. In 1883, Congress passed the Pendleton Act, which required that a small number of federal positions be hired through exams that a small number of federal positions be hired through exams rather than patronage. rather than patronage.

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Political cartoon deriding Garfield’s deluded assassin, Charles Guiteau

Contemporary depiction of Guiteau’s shooting of Garfield

The Politics of EquilibriumThe Politics of Equilibrium– Grover Cleveland in 1884Grover Cleveland in 1884

““Mugwumps”: Republicans nominate James Blaine in 1884, Mugwumps”: Republicans nominate James Blaine in 1884, whose seamy reputation horrifies Republican liberals known as whose seamy reputation horrifies Republican liberals known as “Mugwumps,” who say they will bolt for an honest Democrat. “Mugwumps,” who say they will bolt for an honest Democrat.

Cleveland Elected: Democrats nominate the honest reform Cleveland Elected: Democrats nominate the honest reform governor of New York, Grover Cleveland, to siphon off the governor of New York, Grover Cleveland, to siphon off the “Mugwumps.” In a public meeting with Blaine, a Protestant “Mugwumps.” In a public meeting with Blaine, a Protestant clergyman referred to the Democrats as the party of “rum, clergyman referred to the Democrats as the party of “rum, Romanism, and rebellion,” leading to a major Catholic turnout for Romanism, and rebellion,” leading to a major Catholic turnout for the Democrats in New York.the Democrats in New York.

Grover Cleveland



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The Politics of EquilibriumThe Politics of Equilibrium– Cleveland, Harrison, and the TariffCleveland, Harrison, and the Tariff

Cleveland’s Attempts to Lower the Tariff: The Cleveland’s Attempts to Lower the Tariff: The Democratic House passed a bill, lowering the tariff, but Democratic House passed a bill, lowering the tariff, but the Republican Senate passed its own bill raising the the Republican Senate passed its own bill raising the tariff, creating a state of deadlock in Congress. tariff, creating a state of deadlock in Congress.

Election of 1888: The tariff issue predominated in the Election of 1888: The tariff issue predominated in the 1888 election, and while Cleveland won the popular vote, 1888 election, and while Cleveland won the popular vote, an obscure Republican senator from Indiana, Benjamin an obscure Republican senator from Indiana, Benjamin Harrison, won the Electoral College vote.Harrison, won the Electoral College vote.



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The Politics of EquilibriumThe Politics of Equilibrium– New Public IssuesNew Public Issues

Interstate Commerce Act: This 1887 law created the first federal Interstate Commerce Act: This 1887 law created the first federal body to regulate any kind of private commerce, specifically railroads. body to regulate any kind of private commerce, specifically railroads. It created a five-man commission to curb exploitative practices of It created a five-man commission to curb exploitative practices of railroads, but it was ineffective with haphazard enforcement. railroads, but it was ineffective with haphazard enforcement.

Anti-Trust Sentiment Rising: Although Harrison sought to do as little Anti-Trust Sentiment Rising: Although Harrison sought to do as little as possible, certain issues forced his hand. Fifteen western and as possible, certain issues forced his hand. Fifteen western and southern states adopted laws prohibiting business combinations that southern states adopted laws prohibiting business combinations that eliminated competition, so big conglomerates instead incorporated in eliminated competition, so big conglomerates instead incorporated in states like Delaware and New Jersey, which had laws favorable to states like Delaware and New Jersey, which had laws favorable to them. Antitrust legislation had to come from the federal level to them. Antitrust legislation had to come from the federal level to work. work.

Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890: Congress at last passed an anti-trust Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890: Congress at last passed an anti-trust law in 1890, but for the next decade, few cases were pursued law in 1890, but for the next decade, few cases were pursued (ironically, it was mostly used against labor unions).(ironically, it was mostly used against labor unions).



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The Politics of EquilibriumThe Politics of Equilibrium

– New Public IssuesNew Public Issues McKinley Tariff: Congress passed the highest tariff ever in McKinley Tariff: Congress passed the highest tariff ever in

October 1890, raising it from 38 percent to 49.5 percent on October 1890, raising it from 38 percent to 49.5 percent on certain imported goods (it lowered the rate on other items, with certain imported goods (it lowered the rate on other items, with the highest rates charged on items made by American the highest rates charged on items made by American producers). Senator William McKinley of Ohio became known producers). Senator William McKinley of Ohio became known as “the Napoleon of Protection.”as “the Napoleon of Protection.”

Anger against the High Tariff: Popular sentiment turned Anger against the High Tariff: Popular sentiment turned against Republicans since the high tariff was seen as a measure against Republicans since the high tariff was seen as a measure to enrich wealthy producers and hurt consumers, and led to to enrich wealthy producers and hurt consumers, and led to Democrats winning both houses in 1890 and Cleveland getting Democrats winning both houses in 1890 and Cleveland getting elected for a second term in 1892. Cleveland was a free trade elected for a second term in 1892. Cleveland was a free trade advocate who wanted a lower tariff. advocate who wanted a lower tariff.



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The Agrarian RevoltThe Agrarian Revolt– Agricultural Hardships: American Farmers faced many Agricultural Hardships: American Farmers faced many

hardships in the post-Civil War period, including: hardships in the post-Civil War period, including: Agricultural prices becoming too low because of overproduction due to Agricultural prices becoming too low because of overproduction due to

technological innovations and the opening of the Great Plainstechnological innovations and the opening of the Great Plains The high cost of manufactured goods because of lack of foreign The high cost of manufactured goods because of lack of foreign

competition due to high tariffscompetition due to high tariffs The contraction of currency due to Republican “hard money” policies The contraction of currency due to Republican “hard money” policies

(farmers were generally debtors)(farmers were generally debtors) High railroad rates for rural areas (since there was less competition)High railroad rates for rural areas (since there was less competition) Renting Lands: Hard times led many farmers to have their land Renting Lands: Hard times led many farmers to have their land

foreclosed, and then turn to tenant farming, share-cropping, or the crop-foreclosed, and then turn to tenant farming, share-cropping, or the crop-lien system.lien system.

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From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire The Agrarian RevoltThe Agrarian Revolt

– The Grangers: National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry: This The Grangers: National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry: This organization was founded in 1867 to teach its members new scientific organization was founded in 1867 to teach its members new scientific agricultural methods, but became a potent political organization during the agricultural methods, but became a potent political organization during the depression of the 1870s, pushing state legislatures to pass strict railroad and depression of the 1870s, pushing state legislatures to pass strict railroad and warehouse regulations. The Grange was not a durable force beyond the 1870s warehouse regulations. The Grange was not a durable force beyond the 1870s since the courts undermined its laws and its leadership was disorganized.since the courts undermined its laws and its leadership was disorganized.

– The Farmers’ AlliancesThe Farmers’ Alliances First started forming in the South as early as 1875; by 1880 the Southern First started forming in the South as early as 1875; by 1880 the Southern

Alliance had four million members, and a Northwest Alliance began to grow Alliance had four million members, and a Northwest Alliance began to grow in the Midwest to replace the Grange, and the two merged in 1889.in the Midwest to replace the Grange, and the two merged in 1889.

Social Goals of the Farmers’ Alliances: Sought to eliminate cycle of farmer Social Goals of the Farmers’ Alliances: Sought to eliminate cycle of farmer debt by creating cooperative stores, banks, and processing plants.debt by creating cooperative stores, banks, and processing plants.

Alliance’s Political Growth: In the 1890 elections, Alliance-supported Alliance’s Political Growth: In the 1890 elections, Alliance-supported candidates won at least partial control of legislatures in twelve states, six candidates won at least partial control of legislatures in twelve states, six governorships, three U.S. senators, and roughly fifty U.S. representatives. governorships, three U.S. senators, and roughly fifty U.S. representatives.

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From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire The Agrarian RevoltThe Agrarian Revolt

– People’s Party EstablishedPeople’s Party Established Delegates meeting in Omaha, Nebraska, declare the formation of a third Delegates meeting in Omaha, Nebraska, declare the formation of a third

party, the People’s Party, in July 1892, and nominate James B. Weaver of party, the People’s Party, in July 1892, and nominate James B. Weaver of Iowa for president, who gets one million votes in the November election.Iowa for president, who gets one million votes in the November election.

– The Populist ConstituencyThe Populist Constituency Populism’s Limited Appeal: Biggest constituency was small farmers who Populism’s Limited Appeal: Biggest constituency was small farmers who

lacked economic security. Attempts to unite with the Knights of Labor lacked economic security. Attempts to unite with the Knights of Labor failed since there were few shared interests. Bringing the Colored failed since there were few shared interests. Bringing the Colored Alliances into the fold alienated white southerners. Alliances into the fold alienated white southerners.

– Populist IdeasPopulist Ideas The Populists’ Reform Program: Sought to create a network of The Populists’ Reform Program: Sought to create a network of

government-owned warehouses that could also make loans against government-owned warehouses that could also make loans against deposited crops for low interest; abolition of national banks; a graduated deposited crops for low interest; abolition of national banks; a graduated federal income tax, and government ownership of railroads, telephones, federal income tax, and government ownership of railroads, telephones, and telegraphs.and telegraphs.

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The Crisis of the 1890sThe Crisis of the 1890s– The Panic of 1893The Panic of 1893

Chain Reaction: The most severe depression in the nation’s history Chain Reaction: The most severe depression in the nation’s history up to that point was sparked by the failure of the Philadelphia & up to that point was sparked by the failure of the Philadelphia & Reading Railroad Company, followed by the National Cordage Reading Railroad Company, followed by the National Cordage Company a few months later.Company a few months later.

America’s Interconnected Economy: When railroads—the nation’s America’s Interconnected Economy: When railroads—the nation’s economic circulatory system—suffered, so did everything else. In six economic circulatory system—suffered, so did everything else. In six months, 8,000 businesses, 156 railroads, and 400 banks failed. The months, 8,000 businesses, 156 railroads, and 400 banks failed. The economy would not recover until 1901.economy would not recover until 1901.

““Coxey’s Army”: Ohio businessman and Populist Jacob S. Coxey led Coxey’s Army”: Ohio businessman and Populist Jacob S. Coxey led an army of unemployed men to Washington in 1894 to demand that an army of unemployed men to Washington in 1894 to demand that the government start a massive public works project to get people the government start a massive public works project to get people working again.working again.

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Coxey’s Army onthe outskirts of Washington, D.C.


From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire The Crisis of the 1890sThe Crisis of the 1890s

– The Silver QuestionThe Silver Question Depression and Monetary Policy: President Cleveland believed that the Depression and Monetary Policy: President Cleveland believed that the

instability of the monetary system was a root cause of the depression. In the 19instability of the monetary system was a root cause of the depression. In the 19 thth century, people believed that paper currency needed to be backed by “hard century, people believed that paper currency needed to be backed by “hard currency”: precious metals, known as “specie.” currency”: precious metals, known as “specie.”

““Bimetallism”: The U.S. had recognized gold and silver as the basis for the Bimetallism”: The U.S. had recognized gold and silver as the basis for the dollar for most of its existence. The “mint ratio” was 16:1—sixteen ounces of dollar for most of its existence. The “mint ratio” was 16:1—sixteen ounces of silver equaled one ounce of gold—but the commercial value of silver was much silver equaled one ounce of gold—but the commercial value of silver was much higher than this. Sellers of silver could get much higher prices elsewhere, so higher than this. Sellers of silver could get much higher prices elsewhere, so federal mints stopped minting silver coins. federal mints stopped minting silver coins.

““Crime of ’73”: In 1873, Congress passed a law ending silver coins, confirming Crime of ’73”: In 1873, Congress passed a law ending silver coins, confirming the existing situation. But later in the 1870s, silver fell below the value of the the existing situation. But later in the 1870s, silver fell below the value of the 16:1 ratio, so many complained that Congress had sealed off a way to expand 16:1 ratio, so many complained that Congress had sealed off a way to expand the money supply. In response, Congress passed the Sherman Silver Purchase the money supply. In response, Congress passed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, requiring the government to buy silver for gold, but not mint it. Act of 1890, requiring the government to buy silver for gold, but not mint it. This diminished the gold reserves, so President Cleveland asked for its repeal.This diminished the gold reserves, so President Cleveland asked for its repeal.

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– ““A Cross of Gold”A Cross of Gold” Democratic Failure: The Republicans felt assured of victory in the 1896 Democratic Failure: The Republicans felt assured of victory in the 1896

election due to the Democrats’ failure to address the depression.election due to the Democrats’ failure to address the depression. McKinley Nominated: Ohio Republican Party boss, Marcus A. Hanna, McKinley Nominated: Ohio Republican Party boss, Marcus A. Hanna,

engineered the nomination of the Ohio governor, William McKinley. At engineered the nomination of the Ohio governor, William McKinley. At the Republican Convention, a platform of a high tariff and opposition to the Republican Convention, a platform of a high tariff and opposition to free coinage of silver led 34 delegates from the mountain and plains free coinage of silver led 34 delegates from the mountain and plains states walked out and joined the Democrats. states walked out and joined the Democrats.

““Cross of Gold” Speech: On July 9, 1896, at the Democratic Convention, Cross of Gold” Speech: On July 9, 1896, at the Democratic Convention, defenders of the gold standard held sway until a 36-year-old defenders of the gold standard held sway until a 36-year-old Congressman from Nebraska, William Jennings Bryan, took the stage Congressman from Nebraska, William Jennings Bryan, took the stage and gave one of the most famous speeches in American political history, and gave one of the most famous speeches in American political history, what came to be known as the “Cross of Gold” speech. It caused such a what came to be known as the “Cross of Gold” speech. It caused such a frenzy that it pushed the party to a pro-silver position and led to Bryan’s frenzy that it pushed the party to a pro-silver position and led to Bryan’s nomination for president the following day. nomination for president the following day.

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William Jennings Bryan in 1896

Excerpts from the “Cross of Gold” Speech

“You come to us and tell us that the great cities are in favor of the gold standard. I tell you that the great cities rest upon these broad and fertile prairies. Burn down your cities and leave our farms, and your cities will spring up again as if by magic. But destroy our farms and the grass will grow in the streets of every city in the country….”

“If they dare to come out in the open field and defend the gold standard as a good thing, we shall fight them to the uttermost, having behind us the producing masses of the nation and the world. Having behind us the commercial interests and the laboring interests and all the toiling masses, we shall answer their demands for a gold standard by saying to them, you shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns. You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.”



– The Conservative VictoryThe Conservative Victory ““Fusion”: Populists had expected both parties to remain conservative, Fusion”: Populists had expected both parties to remain conservative,

leaving plenty of room for their candidates, but Democrats had stolen leaving plenty of room for their candidates, but Democrats had stolen their thunder. Many Populists argued “fusing” with the Democrats their thunder. Many Populists argued “fusing” with the Democrats would destroy their party, but saw no other alternative.would destroy their party, but saw no other alternative.

Birth of Modern Campaigning: It had been seen as undignified for Birth of Modern Campaigning: It had been seen as undignified for presidential candidates to go out and make stump speeches, but presidential candidates to go out and make stump speeches, but Bryan traveled 18,000 miles and addressed 5 million people in many Bryan traveled 18,000 miles and addressed 5 million people in many “whistle stops” and other events, setting a new precedent.“whistle stops” and other events, setting a new precedent.

McKinley Victory: McKinley beat Bryan by 271 electoral votes to McKinley Victory: McKinley beat Bryan by 271 electoral votes to 176, and received 51.1 % of the popular vote to Bryan’s 47.7. 176, and received 51.1 % of the popular vote to Bryan’s 47.7.

End of the People’s Party: The Populists’ merger with the Democrats End of the People’s Party: The Populists’ merger with the Democrats was a disaster, and led to that party’s quick disintegration.was a disaster, and led to that party’s quick disintegration.

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Election of 189624



– McKinley and RecoveryMcKinley and Recovery Return to Stability: The McKinley administration oversaw a return Return to Stability: The McKinley administration oversaw a return

to political stability in part because the opposition had played out, to political stability in part because the opposition had played out, its shrewd policies, and the bettering of economic conditions.its shrewd policies, and the bettering of economic conditions.

Tariff: The McKinley administration pushed for and got passed Tariff: The McKinley administration pushed for and got passed the Dingley Tariff of 1897, the highest ever: it doubled taxes on the Dingley Tariff of 1897, the highest ever: it doubled taxes on woolens, linens, silks, China, and sugar, averaging 52 percent on woolens, linens, silks, China, and sugar, averaging 52 percent on all imported goods in its first year.all imported goods in its first year.

Gold Standard Act of 1900: This legislation confirmed the Gold Standard Act of 1900: This legislation confirmed the nation’s commitment to the gold standard.nation’s commitment to the gold standard.

Economic Improvement: This began in 1898, when crop failures Economic Improvement: This began in 1898, when crop failures drove up agricultural prices, and businesses began to expand. New drove up agricultural prices, and businesses began to expand. New gold processing techniques also increased the supply, thus gold processing techniques also increased the supply, thus allowing the currency expansion needed for economic growth.allowing the currency expansion needed for economic growth.

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Stirrings of ImperialismStirrings of Imperialism– The New Manifest DestinyThe New Manifest Destiny

Sources of Imperialism: The experience of subjugating Indian Sources of Imperialism: The experience of subjugating Indian peoples and exerting control over them had created an imperialist peoples and exerting control over them had created an imperialist model.model.

Depression: The 1890s economic troubles encouraged businesses to Depression: The 1890s economic troubles encouraged businesses to look for new markets around the globe.look for new markets around the globe.

Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914): This U.S. navy officer wrote an Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914): This U.S. navy officer wrote an influential book in 1890, influential book in 1890, The Influence of Sea Power in History The Influence of Sea Power in History (1890), that argued that the great nations of history were great sea (1890), that argued that the great nations of history were great sea powers. He feared the U.S. did not have enough naval power to powers. He feared the U.S. did not have enough naval power to pursue the new global role that he envisioned for it. pursue the new global role that he envisioned for it.

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Captain Alfred T. Mahan



Stirrings of ImperialismStirrings of Imperialism– Hemispheric HegemonyHemispheric Hegemony

Pan-American Congress: Secretary of State James G. Blaine created Pan-American Congress: Secretary of State James G. Blaine created this organization in 1889 to promote U.S. interests in Latin America. this organization in 1889 to promote U.S. interests in Latin America.

Venezuelan Dispute: The Cleveland administration sided with Venezuelan Dispute: The Cleveland administration sided with Venezuela in a border dispute with British Guiana, threatening war.Venezuela in a border dispute with British Guiana, threatening war.

– Hawaii and SamoaHawaii and Samoa Hawaii Coveted: By the 1880s, the U.S. Navy wanted Pearl Harbor for Hawaii Coveted: By the 1880s, the U.S. Navy wanted Pearl Harbor for

a base. Hawaii had long been an important way station for U.S. ships a base. Hawaii had long been an important way station for U.S. ships involved in whaling and the China trade, and in 1887, a treaty was involved in whaling and the China trade, and in 1887, a treaty was negotiated that allowed for the naval base. In addition, American sugar negotiated that allowed for the naval base. In addition, American sugar growers—who had started to settle in the 1840s—had been able to ship growers—who had started to settle in the 1840s—had been able to ship their product to the U.S. duty-free because of an 1875 agreement.their product to the U.S. duty-free because of an 1875 agreement.

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From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire Stirrings of ImperialismStirrings of Imperialism

– Hawaii and SamoaHawaii and Samoa Queen Liliuokalani (1838-1817): Native Hawaiians, upset with having Queen Liliuokalani (1838-1817): Native Hawaiians, upset with having

land taken away by American planters and their population ravaged by land taken away by American planters and their population ravaged by disease, put a strong nationalist queen on the throne in 1891.disease, put a strong nationalist queen on the throne in 1891.

Sugar Duties Restored: In 1890, U.S. Congress repealed the customs Sugar Duties Restored: In 1890, U.S. Congress repealed the customs exemption on Hawaiian sugar as a part of the McKinley Tariff, exemption on Hawaiian sugar as a part of the McKinley Tariff, devastating the islands’ economy. devastating the islands’ economy.

Hawaii Annexed: In 1893, American sugar planters revolted and asked Hawaii Annexed: In 1893, American sugar planters revolted and asked for U.S. protection. Congress approved a treaty of annexation in 1898. for U.S. protection. Congress approved a treaty of annexation in 1898.

Acquisition of Samoa: In 1878 the Hayes administration negotiated a Acquisition of Samoa: In 1878 the Hayes administration negotiated a treaty for a naval station in the Samoan harbor of Pago Pago, 3,000 treaty for a naval station in the Samoan harbor of Pago Pago, 3,000 miles closer to Asia than Hawaii. In 1899, the island chain was miles closer to Asia than Hawaii. In 1899, the island chain was divided between the U.S. and Germany. divided between the U.S. and Germany.

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From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire War with SpainWar with Spain

– Controversy over CubaControversy over Cuba Cuban Revolt: The “Ten Years’ War” broke out in 1868, when sugar Cuban Revolt: The “Ten Years’ War” broke out in 1868, when sugar

planters tried to rebel against Spanish rule but failed. In 1895, Cubans planters tried to rebel against Spanish rule but failed. In 1895, Cubans revolted again, and garnered much sympathy in the U.S., especially revolted again, and garnered much sympathy in the U.S., especially as word got out about the atrocities of Spanish general, Valeriano as word got out about the atrocities of Spanish general, Valeriano Weyler, who committed atrocities, used torture, and set up Weyler, who committed atrocities, used torture, and set up concentration camps (rebels also committed atrocities).concentration camps (rebels also committed atrocities).

Yellow Journalism: A circulation war between Joseph Pulitzer's Yellow Journalism: A circulation war between Joseph Pulitzer's New New York World York World and William Randolph Hearst’s and William Randolph Hearst’s New York Journal New York Journal created a demand for sensational stories about Spanish atrocities. created a demand for sensational stories about Spanish atrocities.

Dupuy de LDupuy de Lôme Letter: A Cuban agent intercepted a letter of the ôme Letter: A Cuban agent intercepted a letter of the Spanish minister in Washington that described President McKinley as Spanish minister in Washington that described President McKinley as weak-willed, which was unacceptable to Americans (even though weak-willed, which was unacceptable to Americans (even though they themselves said the same thing.they themselves said the same thing.

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– Controversy over CubaControversy over Cuba The The Maine: Maine: February 15, 1898, the U.S.S. Maine, a battleship February 15, 1898, the U.S.S. Maine, a battleship

commissioned in 1889, mysteriously exploded and sunk in Havana commissioned in 1889, mysteriously exploded and sunk in Havana harbor, killing over 260 people. A naval inquiry commission reported harbor, killing over 260 people. A naval inquiry commission reported an underwater mine was responsible for the explosion, although later an underwater mine was responsible for the explosion, although later evidence shows points to an accidental engine-room explosion. evidence shows points to an accidental engine-room explosion.

War Declared: McKinley hoped to avoid war through and negotiated War Declared: McKinley hoped to avoid war through and negotiated with Spain to stop fighting, eliminate the concentration camps, and with Spain to stop fighting, eliminate the concentration camps, and negotiated with the rebels. The Spanish refused to talk with the rebels, negotiated with the rebels. The Spanish refused to talk with the rebels, so Congress declared war on April 25 at McKinley’s request.so Congress declared war on April 25 at McKinley’s request.

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U.S.S. Maine in 1898



– ““A Splendid Little War” A Splendid Little War” (Sec. of State John Hay coined this)(Sec. of State John Hay coined this) Short Duration: Lasted only from April to August 1898, in part Short Duration: Lasted only from April to August 1898, in part

because Cuban rebels had weakened Spanish resistance.because Cuban rebels had weakened Spanish resistance. Supply and Mobilization Problems: U.S. forces had a shortage of Supply and Mobilization Problems: U.S. forces had a shortage of

modern rifles and clothing appropriate for the tropics. The small modern rifles and clothing appropriate for the tropics. The small standing army of 28,000 was used to fighting Indians, not armies, standing army of 28,000 was used to fighting Indians, not armies, and inexperienced National Guardsmen were used in big numbers. and inexperienced National Guardsmen were used in big numbers.

Racial Tensions in the Military: As black soldiers traveled through Racial Tensions in the Military: As black soldiers traveled through the south toward Tampa where they would leave to fight, several the south toward Tampa where they would leave to fight, several conflicts broke out as they resisted segregation. One nightlong race conflicts broke out as they resisted segregation. One nightlong race riot in Tampa left 30 wounded. Many of the Cuban fighters were riot in Tampa left 30 wounded. Many of the Cuban fighters were black—including one general—which led American black soldiers black—including one general—which led American black soldiers to feel the injustice of discrimination even more acutely. to feel the injustice of discrimination even more acutely.

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– Seizing the PhilippinesSeizing the Philippines Eye on the Philippines: Assistant Secretary of the Eye on the Philippines: Assistant Secretary of the

Navy Theodore Roosevelt was a big supporter of Navy Theodore Roosevelt was a big supporter of Mahan’s theories and the U.S. pursuit of Mahan’s theories and the U.S. pursuit of imperialist goals. He strengthened the Navy’s imperialist goals. He strengthened the Navy’s Pacific Squadron and ordered its commander, Pacific Squadron and ordered its commander, Commodore George Dewey, to seize the Commodore George Dewey, to seize the Philippines in the event of war with Spain.Philippines in the event of war with Spain.

Dewey Victorious: Dewey sailed his squadron Dewey Victorious: Dewey sailed his squadron into Manila harbor on May 1 and destroyed the into Manila harbor on May 1 and destroyed the aging Spanish fleet there. When the army arrived aging Spanish fleet there. When the army arrived several months later, the Spanish surrender several months later, the Spanish surrender Manila.Manila.

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Commodore Dewey



– The Battle for CubaThe Battle for Cuba Cuba: U.S. forces were slow to react until a Spanish fleet sailed into Cuba: U.S. forces were slow to react until a Spanish fleet sailed into

Santiago harbor at the end of May. A force of 17,000 U.S. soldiers left Santiago harbor at the end of May. A force of 17,000 U.S. soldiers left Tampa in June and landed in Cuba.Tampa in June and landed in Cuba.

Battle of San Juan Hill: On July 1, U.S. forces pushed to take the city. Battle of San Juan Hill: On July 1, U.S. forces pushed to take the city. Teddy Roosevelt, who had resigned as assistant secretary of the navy to Teddy Roosevelt, who had resigned as assistant secretary of the navy to take part in the fighting, commanded his “Rough Riders” cavalry unit up take part in the fighting, commanded his “Rough Riders” cavalry unit up Kettle Hill in a reckless charge into Spanish guns that succeeded. Buffalo Kettle Hill in a reckless charge into Spanish guns that succeeded. Buffalo Soldiers bore the worst brunt of the fighting. Soldiers bore the worst brunt of the fighting.

Santiago Blockade: The U.S. Navy blockaded the Spanish fleet in the Santiago Blockade: The U.S. Navy blockaded the Spanish fleet in the Santiago Bay, but destroyed it when it tried to break out on July 3. Santiago Bay, but destroyed it when it tried to break out on July 3. Spanish ground forces surrendered the city on July 16.Spanish ground forces surrendered the city on July 16.

Puerto Rico Occupied: On July 25, U.S. troops invaded Puerto Rico, and Puerto Rico Occupied: On July 25, U.S. troops invaded Puerto Rico, and encountered some resistance, which ended with the signing of a peace encountered some resistance, which ended with the signing of a peace protocol on August 12.protocol on August 12.

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The Spanish-American War in Cuba, 1898

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Teddy Roosevelt and the “Rough Riders” on San Juan Hill



War with SpainWar with Spain– Puerto Rico and the United StatesPuerto Rico and the United States

Colonial History: Puerto Rico had been a part of the Spanish Empire Colonial History: Puerto Rico had been a part of the Spanish Empire since 1508, and its society was largely a Spanish elite with African since 1508, and its society was largely a Spanish elite with African slaves growing sugar and coffee. Slavery had been abolished in 1873.slaves growing sugar and coffee. Slavery had been abolished in 1873.

Foraker Act of 1900: This law did away with U.S. military rule of the Foraker Act of 1900: This law did away with U.S. military rule of the government and created a colonial government.government and created a colonial government.

Sugar Industry: As in Hawaii, Americans began to move in and Sugar Industry: As in Hawaii, Americans began to move in and create big sugar plantations, pushing Puerto Ricans off their land and create big sugar plantations, pushing Puerto Ricans off their land and forcing them into wage labor positions.forcing them into wage labor positions.

Jones Act of 1917: With pressure from a vocal independence Jones Act of 1917: With pressure from a vocal independence movement, Congress passed a law that made Puerto Rico a U.S. movement, Congress passed a law that made Puerto Rico a U.S. territory and made all of its inhabitants U.S. citizens. territory and made all of its inhabitants U.S. citizens.

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From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire– The Debate over the PhilippinesThe Debate over the Philippines

The Philippines Question: Annexation generated much more anxiety The Philippines Question: Annexation generated much more anxiety and debate than in the case of Puerto Rico, since it was a densely and debate than in the case of Puerto Rico, since it was a densely populated territory thousands of miles away, seeming more like the populated territory thousands of miles away, seeming more like the naked imperialist aggression of European powers. McKinley saw no naked imperialist aggression of European powers. McKinley saw no other alternative since he viewed Filipinos as “unfit” for self-rule.other alternative since he viewed Filipinos as “unfit” for self-rule.

Anti-Imperialist Sentiment: Many major figures in the U.S. opposed Anti-Imperialist Sentiment: Many major figures in the U.S. opposed annexation, including Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, Samuel annexation, including Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, Samuel Gompers, etc.Gompers, etc.

Anti-Imperialist League: This group of upper-class Bostonians Anti-Imperialist League: This group of upper-class Bostonians campaigned vigorously against the 1898 Treaty of Paris. Many were campaigned vigorously against the 1898 Treaty of Paris. Many were Grover Cleveland-style Democrats who believed in small Grover Cleveland-style Democrats who believed in small government and free trade.government and free trade.

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From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire– The Debate over the PhilippinesThe Debate over the Philippines

Supporters of Annexation: Imperialists like Roosevelt favored Supporters of Annexation: Imperialists like Roosevelt favored annexation, while some business interests saw it as an opportunity to annexation, while some business interests saw it as an opportunity to expand overseas markets. Others used the example of dependent expand overseas markets. Others used the example of dependent Indian nations as an appropriate model.Indian nations as an appropriate model.

Election of 1900: Pro-annexation forces got a boost from a strange Election of 1900: Pro-annexation forces got a boost from a strange supporter—William Jennings Bryan, a fervent anti-imperialist—who supporter—William Jennings Bryan, a fervent anti-imperialist—who wanted to make annexation the central issue of the 1900 presidential wanted to make annexation the central issue of the 1900 presidential election. Yet this strategy misfired, because McKinley won by a election. Yet this strategy misfired, because McKinley won by a bigger margin than in 1896, benefitting from returning prosperity and bigger margin than in 1896, benefitting from returning prosperity and the colorful personality of his vice presidential candidate, the hero of the colorful personality of his vice presidential candidate, the hero of San Juan Hill, Teddy Roosevelt. San Juan Hill, Teddy Roosevelt.

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The Republic as EmpireThe Republic as Empire– Governing the ColoniesGoverning the Colonies

Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico: These three possessions became Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico: These three possessions became territories without much problem: Hawaii in 1900, Alaska in 1912, territories without much problem: Hawaii in 1900, Alaska in 1912, and Puerto Rico in 1917.and Puerto Rico in 1917.

Platt Amendment: Cuba was more difficult. When Cuba prepared a Platt Amendment: Cuba was more difficult. When Cuba prepared a constitution without reference to the U.S., Congress passed this constitution without reference to the U.S., Congress passed this amendment in 1901, which barred Cuba from making treaties with amendment in 1901, which barred Cuba from making treaties with other countries, gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs, other countries, gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs, and required permanent naval stations (like Guantanamo Bay).and required permanent naval stations (like Guantanamo Bay).

Economic Imperialism: U.S. investors dominated plantations, Economic Imperialism: U.S. investors dominated plantations, railroads, and factories. When uprisings happened, U.S. troops railroads, and factories. When uprisings happened, U.S. troops intervened (1906-1909, 1912, and 1917-1922).intervened (1906-1909, 1912, and 1917-1922).

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From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire The Republic as EmpireThe Republic as Empire

– The Philippine WarThe Philippine War Filipino Desire for Independence: Filipinos had Filipino Desire for Independence: Filipinos had

rebelled against the Spanish well before the U.S. arrived, and initially fought rebelled against the Spanish well before the U.S. arrived, and initially fought with the Americans to get rid of the Spaniards.with the Americans to get rid of the Spaniards.

Emilio Aguinaldo (1869-1964): This able rebel leader began the fight against Emilio Aguinaldo (1869-1964): This able rebel leader began the fight against the Americans when he realized they were not leaving, and viewed himself the Americans when he realized they were not leaving, and viewed himself as the leader of the legitimate government. He conducted a four-year guerilla as the leader of the legitimate government. He conducted a four-year guerilla war that killed 4,300 American deaths and probably caused at least 50,000 war that killed 4,300 American deaths and probably caused at least 50,000 Filipino deaths. Filipino deaths.

The Philippines Brutally Subjugated: General Arthur MacArthur used brutal The Philippines Brutally Subjugated: General Arthur MacArthur used brutal tactics like torture and summary execution to put down the uprising. tactics like torture and summary execution to put down the uprising. Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, and who signed a document to tell his Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, and who signed a document to tell his followers to stop fighting. Intermittent violence continued until 1906.followers to stop fighting. Intermittent violence continued until 1906.

Gradual Shift to Self-Rule: Filipinos were finally granted independence on Gradual Shift to Self-Rule: Filipinos were finally granted independence on July 4, 1946, after World War II and Japanese occupation.July 4, 1946, after World War II and Japanese occupation.

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American soldiers applying the “water cure” torture—a variation of what we know call “water-boarding”—on a Filipino prisoner in May 1901


From Crisis to EmpireFrom Crisis to Empire The Republic as EmpireThe Republic as Empire

– The Open DoorThe Open Door Interest in Asia: The acquisition of the Philippines drove increased Interest in Asia: The acquisition of the Philippines drove increased

American interest in Asia, especially in the fate of a greatly weakened American interest in Asia, especially in the fate of a greatly weakened China, which was being carved up by England, France, Germany, Russia, China, which was being carved up by England, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan around the turn of the century.and Japan around the turn of the century.

Hay’s “Open Door Notes”: Secretary of State John Hay issued notes to Hay’s “Open Door Notes”: Secretary of State John Hay issued notes to imperial powers in China asking them to allow other powers to trade with imperial powers in China asking them to allow other powers to trade with China, and that the U.S. wanted no special privileges there.China, and that the U.S. wanted no special privileges there.

Boxer Rebellion: A secret martial-arts society known in the west as the Boxer Rebellion: A secret martial-arts society known in the west as the “Boxers” lay siege to the European diplomatic corps in 1900, leading to “Boxers” lay siege to the European diplomatic corps in 1900, leading to all of the imperial powers (including the U.S.) to send an expeditionary all of the imperial powers (including the U.S.) to send an expeditionary force to rescue the diplomats. Hay was able to negotiate a peace that force to rescue the diplomats. Hay was able to negotiate a peace that preserved nominal Chinese territorial integrity and U.S. access to Chinese preserved nominal Chinese territorial integrity and U.S. access to Chinese markets. markets.

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The Republic as EmpireThe Republic as Empire– A Modern Military SystemA Modern Military System

Creation of the Modern Military: The war with Spain had Creation of the Modern Military: The war with Spain had revealed American military deficiencies despite the victory.revealed American military deficiencies despite the victory.

Elihu Root (1845-1937): McKinley appointed this very capable Elihu Root (1845-1937): McKinley appointed this very capable corporate attorney as Secretary of War after the war, and he corporate attorney as Secretary of War after the war, and he greatly reformed the military, making the standing army a force greatly reformed the military, making the standing army a force of 100,000 rather than just 25,000, and required federal training of 100,000 rather than just 25,000, and required federal training standards for the National Guard. He also created an Army standards for the National Guard. He also created an Army Staff College and a Joint Chiefs of Staff, resulting in a better Staff College and a Joint Chiefs of Staff, resulting in a better trained and more efficient command structure. trained and more efficient command structure.

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Chapter Nineteen: From Crisis to Empire. Political Overview from 1870 to the 1900 1873: Panic of...

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