14

CHAPTER – II

SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF

THE SCHEDULED CASTES IN ANDHRA PRADESH

According to scholar statesman and the late President S. Radha Krishnan,

Manu had based his chaturvarna concept of priest teacher, warrior, businessman and

worker with a view to accord equal status, equal prestige and equal value to all

sections of the society,1 but winds of change and waves of history turned function

based Chaturvarna into heredity based jajmani system that ultimately turned out to be

the greatest curse for the country. Of all the sections the shudras, once put to the

lowest rung of the social hierarchy were destined to suffer all types of deprivations.

These untouchables and depressed classes came to be designated as Scheduled Castes

– the term appeared for the first in the Government of India Act, 1935. In April 1936,

the British Government had issued the Government of India (Scheduled Castes) order,

1936 specifying certain castes, races and tribes as scheduled castes in the then

provinces of Assam, Bengal, Bombay, Central provinces and Berar, Madras, Orissa,

Punjab and United Provinces.2

Under Article 341 of the Constitution, certain backward classes/communities

suffering from untouchability and social disabilities were declared as scheduled

castes. After the Constitution came into force, the list of scheduled castes was

notified under the Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order 1950 by the President of

15

India. So far 15 President Order’s specifying Scheduled castes and Scheduled Tribes

for various states and Union territories have been issued. Any amendment to the

existing list of scheduled castes/scheduled tribes is made by a Parliamentary

enactment.3 On the part of the Government, no definition of a Scheduled Caste or a

Tribe has even been given. Only at the pleasure of authorities a community becomes

a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe. No wonder, a community having some

socio-cultural-economic characteristics is a Scheduled Caste or a Tribe in one

state/UT but not in other. Not only that on purely political considerations, some

communities on the advice of some sociologists have been ‘scheduled’ to draw

benefits whereas the Ladakhis, totally similar to their neighbours in Himachal Pradesh

have ultimately resorted to violence to get themselves scheduled. By 1971 there were

612 Scheduled Castes in India.4

STATE OF SCHEDULED CASTES

According to 1981 census, the Scheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribes

constitute 15.47 percent and 7.85 percent respectively of the total population of the

country. In other words, Harijans and ‘Girijans’ that is, Tribes, constitute about one

fourth of the country’s population. The major concentration of Scheduled Castes is,

in Uttar Pradesh (22.3 percent) followed by West Bengal (11.46%), Bihar (9.8%),

Tamil Nadu (8.48%), Andhra Pradesh (7.6%), Madhya Pradesh (7.02%), Rajasthan

(5.57%), Karnataka (5.34%), Punjab (4.31%), Maharashtra (4.28%), Kerala (2.43%),

16

Haryana (2.35%), Gujarat (2.33%), Himachal Pradesh (1.01%), Jammu and Kashmir

(0.47%), Tripura (0.30%), Sikkim (0.02%) and Manipur (0.02%).

In Nagaland, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep there are no

Scheduled Castes and in Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and

Mizoram their number is very insignificant.5

An overwhelming number of the Harijans (88 percent) resides in the

countryside. Although until recent past, a Harijan dreaded to move out of his

moorings, but owing to agricultural development (particularly the Green Revolution)

in some parts of the country, Industrial progress in certain regions, rapidly expanding

urbanization and the breaking of the jajmani system as also the steeply declining

demand for rural goods prepared by artisans, the Harijans have become quite a mobile

class. About 52 percent of all scheduled caste workers are agricultural labourers and

28 percent are small and marginal farmers and share croppers. In the western part of

the country almost all weavers are from Scheduled Castes and in the eastern part of

the country almost all fishermen are from the Scheduled Castes. Unclean occupations

like scavenging, flaying, tanning etc. are almost entirely left to the Scheduled Castes.

In the urban areas a substantial proportion of rickshaw pullers, cart pullers,

construction labourers, beedi workers and other unorganized non-agricultural wage

labourers and civic sanitation workers belong to Scheduled Castes. They are amongst

the poorest of those who live below the poverty line.6

17

Although there are have-nots and downtrodden among other sections of the

populace, the major chunk of the deprived section of India’s population that is living

in abject poverty, abnormal ignorance and unparalleled superstition comes from the

Scheduled Castes. Among deprived people too, it was the Harijans who for centuries

lived practically the life of servitude, humiliation and utter helplessness.

CONSTITUTIONAL SAFEGUARDS

The Constitution prescribes protection and safeguards for the scheduled castes

and scheduled tribes, and other weaker sections either specially or by way of insisting

on their general rights as citizens with the object of promoting their educational and

economic interests and of removing the social disabilities. The main safeguards are:

(i) The abolition of untouchability and the forbidding of its practice in any

form (Art. 17);

(ii) The promotion of their educational and economic interests and their

protection from social injustice and all forms of exploitation (Art. 46);

(iii) The throwing open by law of Hindu religious institutions of a public

character to all classes and sections of Hindus (Art. 25 b);

(iv) To removal of any disability, liability, restriction or condition with

regard to access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public

entertainment or the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places

18

of public resort maintained wholly or partially out of state funds or

dedicated to the use of the general public (Art. 15 [2]);

(v) The curtailment by law in the interest of any scheduled tribes of the

general rights of all citizens to move freely, settle in and acquire

property (Art. 19 [5]);

(vi) The forbidding or any denial of admission to educational institutions

maintained by the state or receiving grant out of State funds (Art. 29

[2]);

(vii) Permitting the State to make reservation for the backward classes in

public services in case of inadequate representations and requiring the

State to consider the claims of the scheduled castes and scheduled

tribes in the making of appointments to public services (Art. 16 and

335);

(viii) Special representation in the Lok Sabha and the State Vidhan Sabhas to

scheduled castes and tribes till 25 January 2010 (Article 330, 332 and

334);

(ix) The setting up of Tribes Advisory Councils and separate department in

the State and the appointment of a special officer at the centre to

promote their welfare and safeguard their interests (Art. 164 & 338 and

Fifth Schedule);

(x) Special provision for the administration and control of scheduled and

tribes areas (Article 244 and Fifth and Sixth Schedules); and

(xi) Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour (Article 23).

19

REPRESENTATION IN LEGISLATURES

Under Articles 330 and 332 of the Constitution, seats are reserved for

scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative

Assemblies in proportion to their population. This concession, initially for a period of

10 years from the commencement of Constitution, has been extended through

amendments upto 25 January, 2000. Parliamentary Acts proved for such reservation

in the Union Territories having legislatures. There is no reservation of seats in Rajya

Sabha and Vidhan Parishads. The enclosed table gives detail of their representation

in the Lok Sabha and the Vidhan Sabhas.

Following the introduction of Panchayati Raj, safeguards have been provided

for proper representation of members of scheduled castes and tribes by reserving seats

for them in the gram panchayats and other local bodies.

RESERVATION IN SERVICES

Articles 335 of the Constitution provides that the claims of the members of

scheduled castes and scheduled tribes shall be taken into consideration, consistent

with the maintenance of efficiency of administration, in making appointment to posts

and services, in connection with the affairs of the Union or the state. Article 16 (4)

permits reservations in favour of citizens of backward classes, who may not be

20

adequately represented in services. In pursuance of these provisions, the Government

has made reservation for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the services under

their control.

For the scheduled castes, reservation is 15 percent of the vacancies for which

recruitment is made by open competition on all India basis and 16-2/3 percent of the

vacancies to which recruitment is made on All India basis otherwise than by open

competition. For the scheduled tribes, the reservation is 7.5 percent in both cases.

Reservation in direct recruitment to Group C and D posts, which normally attract

candidates from one locality or region, is fixed in proportion to the population of

Scheduled-castes and tribes in the respective states and union territories.

Reservation is also made at 15 percent of the vacancies for the Scheduled

Castes and 7.5 percent for the scheduled tribes in promotions on the result of the

competitive examinations limited to departmental candidates in Group B, C and D

and to the lowest rung of Group A in grades or services to which direct recruitment, it

any, does not exceed 66-2/3 percent. Reservation has been provided for Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes in promotion on the basis of seniority subject to fitness

in Group A, B, C and D posts Grades or services to which direct recruitment if any,

does not exceed 66-2/3 percent.7

21

RESERVATION OF SEATS IN LEGISLATURES

(as on 8 January, 1990)

Sl.

No.

State/Union

territory

LOK SABHA Legislative Assembly

Total

Gen

.

SC ST Total Gen. SC ST

1. Andhra Pradesh 42 34 6 2 294 240 39 15

2. Arunachal Pradesh 2 2 - - 60 1 - 59

3. Assam 14 11 1 2 126 102 8 16

4. Bihar 54 41 8 5 324 248 48 28

5. Goa 2 2 - - 40 39 1 -

6. Gujarat 26 20 2 4 182 143 13 26

7. Haryana 10 8 2 - 90 73 17 -

8. Himachal Pradesh 4 3 1 - 68 49 16 3

9. Jammu & Kashmir 6 6 - - 76 70 6 -

10. Karnataka 24 20 4 - 224 189 33 2

11. Kerala 20 18 2 - 140 126 13 1

12. Madhya Pradesh 40 25 6 9 320 201 44 75

13. Maharashtra 48 41 3 4 288 248 17 22

14. Manipur 2 1 - 1 60 40 1 19

22

15. Meghalaya 2 2 - - 60 5 - 55

16. Mizoram 1 - - 1 40 1 - 39

17. Nagaland 1 1 - - 60 1 - 59

18. Orissa 21 13 3 5 147 90 22 34

19. Punjab 13 10 3 - 117 88 29 -

20. Rajasthan 25 18 4 3 200 143 33 24

21. Sikkim 1 1 - - 32 18 2 12

22. Tamil Nadu 39 22 7 - 234 189 42 3

23. Tripura 2 1 - 1 60 36 7 17

24. Uttar Pradesh 85 67 18 - 425 332 92 1

25. West Bengal 42 32 8 2 294 218 59 17

26. Andaman and

Nicobar Island’s

1 1 - - - - - -

27. Chandigarh 1 1 - - - - - -

28. Dadra & Nager

Haveli

1 - - 1 - - - -

29. Daman and Diu 1 1 - - - - - -

30. Delhi 7 6 1 - 56 47 9 -

31. Lakshadweep 1 - - 1 - - - -

32. Pondicherry 1 1 - - 30 25 5 -

TOTAL 543 423 79 41 4,047 3,963 557 527

23

To facilitate their adequate representation, concessions such as relaxation of

age limit, standard of suitability, qualification regarding experience in the case of

direct recruitment only, wherever necessary and inclusion of scientific and technical

posts upto the lowest grade of Group A required for research in the scheme of

reservations, have been provided for Simultaneously, with notification to employment

exchanges or advertisements in newspapers, vacancies reservations, for scheduled

castes and scheduled tribes in Group C and D (Class III and IV) posts are announced

over the stations of all India Radio located in areas having a concentration of

scheduled castes and scheduled tribes population, notified to the voluntary

associations of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes enlisted for this purpose and to

the Directors of SC/ST Welfare of the States and Union Territories. Vacancies filled

through the Union public Service Commission otherwise than through examination,

are advertised on the first occasion as exclusively reserved for scheduled

castes/scheduled tribes and are re-advertised if the first advertisement is in-fructuous.

After the second advertisement, other community candidates can also be considered,

if no scheduled castes/tribes candidates still become available. Reservations for

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (including vacancies carried forward) is

subject to the ceiling of 50 percent of the total number of vacancies. This scheme of

reservations is also being followed by the public sector undertakings. The voluntary

agencies, which are in receipt of substantial grants-in-aid from the Government, are

also required, as a condition to adopt certain specific features of the reservation

scheme in their establishments. The government was examining the feasibility of

directing the private sector undertakings to reserve seats for SC/ST.8

24

Annual statements are required to be submitted by the recruiting authorities for

scrutiny by the Government. For ensuring implementation of the special

representation orders, liaison officers have been appointed in different ministries of

the Central Government.

State governments have also framed rules under the power given to them by

item 41 of the State list of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution for the reservation

of posts for these classes and have taken steps to increase their representation in the

state services. Reservation in state government services, however, is under the

exclusive jurisdiction of the state governments.

COMMISSIONER FOR SCHEDULED CASTES AND SCHEDULED TRIBES

Article 338 of the Constitution provides for the appointment of a Special

Officer for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes who is charged with the duty

to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided for the Scheduled Castes

and Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution and to report tot eh President upon the

working of these safeguards at prescribed intervals. In pursuance thereto, a Special

Officer, commonly known as Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled

Tribes, is appointed by the President from time to time. Considering the magnitude of

the problem, the Government was of the view that in addition to the functioning and

authority of the Special Officer, these matters should appropriately be entrusted to a

high level Commission consisting of persons of eminence and status in public life.

25

The functioning of the Commission would not be lessening the authority of the

Special Officer.

Government had accordingly decided to set up a Commission for this purpose

which was to consist of a Chairman and not more than four other Members, including

the Special Officer appointed under Article 338 of the Constitution. The term of

office of the Chairman and the Members of the Commission would not ordinarily

exceed three years. The headquarters of the Commission would be located at New

Delhi.

The functions of the proposed Commission would broadly correspond with the

functions at present entrusted to the Special Officer under Article 338 of the

Constitution and would be as follows:

(i) To investigate all matters relating to safeguards provided for Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Constitution. This should inter alia,

include a review of the manner in which reservations stipulated in

public services for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are in

practice, implemented.

(ii) To study the implementation of protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955,

with particular reference to the objective of removal of untouchability

and individual discrimination arising there from within a period of five

years.

26

(iii) To ascertain the socio-economic and other relevant circumstances

accounting for the commission of offences against persons belonging to

Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes with a view to ensuring the

removal of impediments in the laws in force and the recommend

appropriate remedial measures including measures to ensure prompt

investigation of the offences.

(iv) To enquire into individual complaints regarding denial of any

safeguards provided to any person claiming to belong to Scheduled

Castes or Scheduled Tribes.

The commission would devise its own procedure in the discharge of its

functions. All the Ministries and Departments of the Government of India would

furnish such information and documents and provide such assistance as may be

required by the Commission from time to time. The Government of India trusts that

the State Governments and Union Territory Administrations and others concerned

will extend their fullest cooperation and assistance to the Commission.

The Commission would submit an annual report to the President detailing its

activities and recommendations. This would however, not preclude the Commission

from submitting, Reports to the Government at any time they consider necessary on

matters within their scope of work. The Annual Report together with a memorandum

outlining the action taken on the recommendations and explaining the reasons for

27

non-acceptance of recommendations, if any, in so far as it relates to the Central

Government will be laid before each House of Parliament.

The Commission was set up in 1978.9 It is assisted by a Secretariat with

headquarters at Delhi and seventeen field offices located in the States. Twelve of the

field offices are headed by Directors and five by Deputy Directors. The Secretariat is

headed by an officer of the rank of Secretary to Government.

The Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes has been

renamed as National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.10 It

will function as an Advisory body on broad issue of policies and levels of

development of the SCs and STs. It shall consist of Chairman and not more than

eleven other members and may include experts in the field of social anthropology,

social work and other related social sciences. The terms and conditions of the

Chairman and the Members shall be as determined by the Government in each case,

provided that their term of office shall not normally exceed three years. The

functions of the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

will be as follows:

(i) To study the extent and ramifications of untouchability and social

discrimination arising there from and effectiveness of the present

measure and recommend further measures to be taken;

28

(ii) To study socio-economic and other relevant circumstances leading to

the commission of offences against persons belonging to Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes; and to recommend appropriate remedial

measures to ensure prompt investigation of such offences.

(iii) To make studies on different aspects of development of the Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes with a view to ensuring integration of

these groups with the main stream of the society in all aspects. These

would include studies in the field of socio-economic development,

education, commerce, trade, art, literature, language, housing,

communication, agriculture, forestry, horticulture, fisheries,

rehabilitation, pollution and environment; and

(iv) Such other functions as may be entrusted to the National Commission

for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in evolving general policies

relating to any aspect of development of the Scheduled Castes and

Scheduled Tribes as may be thought proper by the Central government.

IMPACT OF THE PROGRAMMES

Despite these efforts of the governments and voluntary organizations for

development and welfare of the Scheduled Tribes it is alleged that the tribal people

have experienced nothing but the backlash of development leading to disorganization

as a community and destitution as individuals.

29

The Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Tribes in his latest (Twenty-

eighth) Report has lamented that the denial of right to life which is basic and self-

created and is enshrined in our Constitution is the biggest anomaly of our national life

and the worst sufferers are members of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes

whose protection and welfare is the special responsibility of the state under the

constitutions.11 In various states, the governments have not been finding it too easy to

cut through bureaucratic maze, land reforms are often mythical, in specific pockets all

over the country, quite a few tribal’s routinely end up as bonded labourers. And as

the Commissioner puts it, “In implementing the law of bonded labour no action is

usually taken against a person who violates the same, the emphasis is on liberation, it

does not make any difference to the employer”.12 Another important aspect of the

scheme: there habilitation of bonded labourers is neglected. In many cases a person

may be presented as bonded labourer for the sole objective of getting a rehabilitation

grant. But the money meant for the labourer is misappropriated by the employer and

the official. In this situation it is difficult even to identify the real bonded labour.

The condition of tribal masses in the country as a whole has been deteriorating

from year to year. They have been alienated from the rest of society by

moneylenders, landlords or their touts. Their customary rights in the forests have

long been forgotten, and in many areas even the traditional “jhum” cultivation has

been banned without arranging employment through other avenues. They are victims

of eviction and displacement due to the construction of irrigation dams and other

projects which take years to take off without any proper alternative land,

30

compensation or even employment to the tribals. There are numerous cases of attacks

on them. Furthermore, they are being driven out of forests by the same officials who,

along with contractors, are denuding the forests. All this, despite the fact that agro-

forestry research clearly shows that inside these very forests crops of specific types

can be grown without damage to the trees. No wonder that some of the tribals, aided

by vested interest, are taking to the separatist path.

What is needed is some measure to end the transfer of tribal land to non-tribal

people, protection of their customary right to forest produce and land, the protection

of their right to the “jhumias” till rehabilitation is arranged satisfactorily, preventing

the degradation of environment in tribal areas by mining companies and other

enterprises, and ensuring pure drinking water to these people. Their exploitation by

forest and police officials, contractors and timber merchants, who pay starvation

wages, must be ended and they must be given full rights to participate in panchayat

activities. A government with a vision has to look for forest-based industries and

economic activities to make them self-reliant. The government will also have to

recognise their cultural and linguistic distinctiveness. Moreover, where they are in

majority they should be granted regional or local autonomy within the state

concerned.

There is need for a political will to create a climate of goodwill, particularly in

the tribal areas. A unilateral process of development should not be imposed on

31

voiceless people. Their lives should not be staked in the name of national

development and high ideals.

ROLE OF VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS

Voluntary organizations play a significant role in advancing socio-economic

progress of the community in general and that of the Scheduled Casts and Scheduled

Tribes in particular. Some of the agencies of all India character receive direct grants-

in-aid from the Ministry of Welfare. Grants-in-aid sanctioned to 21 organisations

working for the Scheduled Castes and 35 organisations working for the Scheduled

Tribes during the years 1981-82 to 1986-87 has been shown in following table:13

Table

Year Scheduled Castes

(in lakhs)

Scheduled Tribes

1981-82

1982-83

1983-84

1984-85

1985-86

1986-87

Rs. 63

Rs. 63

Rs. 66

Rs. 68

Rs. 70

Rs. 80

Rs. 52

Rs. 53

Rs. 50

Rs. 61

Rs. 61

Rs. 80

Total Rs. 410 Rs. 357

32

Some of the prominent organizations working for Scheduled Castes are:

Harijan Sevak Sang, Delhi; Divyayan Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ranchi; Ramakrishna

Mission Ashrama, Puri (Orissa); Sri Rama-Krishna Advait Ashram, Kalady (Kerala);

Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, P.O. Narendrapur, 24 Parganas District (West

Bengal); and Ramakrishna Mission Vidyapith, P.O. Vivekanada Nagar, District

Purulia (West Bengal) and those working for the Scheduled Tribes are: Bharatiya

Adimjati Sevak Sangh, New Delhi; The Nilgiris Adivasi Welfare Association,

Kotagiri The Nilgiris District (Tamil Nadu); Banasthali Vidyapith (Rajasthan);

Ramakrishna Mission, Shillong; Gharmora Model Satra Mills & Plains Cultural

Institution, North Lakhimpur (Assam); and Ramakrishna Mission Boys’ Home, P.O.

Rahara, District 24 Parganas (West Bengal).

In view of the fact that the important role which voluntary organizations play

in the development of weaker sections, the Working Groups on the Development of

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes during the Seventh Five Year Plan made a

number of important observation and recommendations. The Planning Commission

themselves gave a set of criteria for recognizing voluntary agencies working in the

field of development. This, inter alia, envisaged that these agencies should not be

linked directly or indirectly with any political party. They will adopt legal and non-

violent means in the furtherance of their goals and objectives. These guidelines are

un-exceptionable and should be adopted by the State government as well. Voluntary

agencies in tribal development work can play a crucial role in the remote areas where

33

the functioning of the governmental agencies is not satisfactory for a variety of

reasons. These areas can be effectively covered by selfless voluntary workers. Even

else-where the voluntary organizations can play an important role in mobilisation

social and economic development programmes. The basic problem in the tribal areas

is lack of confidence between the people and the administration and the voluntary

workers can serve as a valuable bridge between them.

A number of voluntary organizations in the tribal areas are receiving foreign

assistance. Though the clearance from the Government of India is obtained by them

before receiving foreign assistance a special check by the Ministry of Welfare is not

made. This needs a careful consideration in view of the rise in the flow of foreign

money into the tribal areas.14

‘HARIJAN’ FOR ‘UNTOUCHABLES’

The other day a friend suggested to me that the word ‘Harijan’ (man of God)

be substituted for the word Antyaja (the last-born) that is being used for

‘untouchables’. It was a word used by the great saint Narasinha Mehta, who by the

by belonged to the Nagar Brahmana community and who defied the whole

community by claiming the ‘untouchables’ as his own. I am delighted to adopt that

word which is sanctified by having been used by such a great saint, but it has for me a

deeper meaning than you may imagine. The ‘untouchable’, to me, is, compared to us,

really a Harijan – a man of God, and we are Durjan (men of evil). For whilst the

34

‘untouchable’ has toiled and moiled and dirtied his hands so that we may live in

comfort and cleanliness, we have delighted in suppressing him. We are solely

responsible for all the shortcomings and faults that we lay at the door of these

‘untouchables’. It is still open to us to be Harijan ourselves, but we can only do so by

heartily repenting of our sin against them.15

WHY ‘HARIJAN’?

Harijan means ‘a man of God’. All the religions of the world describe God

pre-eminently as the Friend of the friendless, Help of the helpless and Protector of the

weak. The rest of the world apart, in India who can be more friendless, helpless or

weaker than the forty million or more Hindus of India who are classified as

‘untouchables’? If, therefore, anybody of people can be fitly described as men of

God, they are surely these helpless, friendless and despised people. Hence, in the

pages of Navajivan, I have always adopted Harijan as the name signifying

‘untouchables’.16 Not that the change of name brings about any change of status, but

one may at least be spared the use of a term which is itself one of reproach. When

Caste Hindus have of their own inner conviction and, therefore, voluntarily, got rid of

the present-day untouchability, we shall all be called Harijans; for, according to my

humble opinion, Caste Hindus will then have found favour with God and may

therefore, be fitly described as his men.17

35

I. SCAVENGING THROUGH THE AGES

A. SCAVENGING IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

In the past, even in European countries and America, the disposal of night-soil

was done through scavenging. The following extract from ‘Scavenger’ sheds

adequate light on this fact:

‘Before the coming of the water closet, the sewage of European cities was

disposed of by ‘scavengers’, men who made nightly rounds of the cities (hence

‘night-soil’), collecting the contents of privy vaults and carting them to nearby

farming areas. Often the farmer who brought his produce to the city returned

home with a load of fertilizer. This was also the custom in America, where the

widespread introduction of water closets and the sewerage system occurred

only late in the century. But by the mid-19th Century, the scavenging system

had broken down in many places. As cities grew, so did the supply of sewage.

The laws of supply and demand prevailed and the bottom fell out of the night-

soil maker. Farmers living near cities were saturated, while for those living

further away transportation costs were too high’.18

This excerpt suggests that the scavenging system was prevalent in American

and European countries for the disposal of human excreta before the introduction of

the sewerage system. The scavenging system came to an end with the development

36

of higher technology and possibility of water supply in sufficient quantity at all

places. The sewerage system for disposing human excreta is now in common practice

in the developed countries.19

It is also evident that the term ‘night-soil’ was coined for human excreta,

because in American and European countries the human excreta was collected by

scavengers from privy vaults at night and was carried to farming areas to be used as

manure. The practice of cleaning human excreta at night, therefore, gave it the name

of ‘night-soil’.

B. SCAVENGING IN MUSLIM COUNTRIES

The methods of scavenging and the social sanctions related to the scavenging

work might be different places, but the cleaning of night-soil from the places of

defecation and carrying it to the place of disposal were in practice everywhere.

Islamic sanctions suggest the presence of the disposal system in the early days of

Islam, i.e., the 7th Century A.D. or even in pre-Islamic days. The religious sanctions

related to Bait-al-khola (latrine) in Islam clearly suggest that the latrine system was

existing at that time and, hence, the disposal of human excreta also took place in

Arabia. Moreover, the sanctions of purdah in Islam imposed a restriction on the free

movement of women. In a situation where covering the body and face was a religious

duty of Muslim women, it was necessary to have a place of defecation inside the

house and also a place for the disposal of night-soil. Defecation outside the house by

37

women involved the possibility of violation of ‘purdah sanctions’ and was against the

concept of hijab, essential for every adult Muslim women. These sanctions also lead

to the conclusion that there did exist a system for the disposal of night-soil. Moreover

the disposal required cleaning of the latrine and removal of the human excreta to

some other place outside the habitat, or at a distant place from it. Hence, the

scavenging system was in vogue.20

C. SCAVENGING IN INDIA

Indians life mainly in village. Even today more than 70 per cent of the

country’s population is rural. In ancient days the percentage was much higher. Being

bereft of an enclosed place for defection inside the house, people generally defecated

in open fields, their women using secluded places either surrounded by trees or partly

covered with crops or hidden by a raised, grassy mound. The same situation is still

prevalent. The people living in towns needed specified places for defecation and,

hence, there was need for disposal of night-soil. In this way scavenging was not

unknown even in ancient days in India. The scavenging work was done by a

particular section of society constituting a caste or a sub-caste.

The sacred scriptures throw some light on the existence of a system for the

disposal of night-soil. According to the contents of sacred scriptures and other

literature, scavenging, specially the disposal of night-soil by a particular caste or

castes of Indian society, has been in existence since the beginning of civilization.

38

One of the 15 duties for slaves enumerated in the Naradiya Samhita, was to dispose

of human excreta (Nagar; 1980:9). In Vajasaneyi Samhita the Chandals and

Paulkasa have been referred to as slaves for the disposal of night-soil.21 During the

Buddhist period also, these two names have been mentioned. During the Maurya

period Patliputra (now known as Patna in Bihar State, India) was one of the five

ancient towns where the city mayor as Nagrak was the head of the organization

entrusted with the task of looking after the civic affairs of the town. The scavengers

and sweepers cleaned the city and disposed of night-soil.

During the Maurya period, the sanitary condition of towns was very much

improved. Chanakya, known as Mantri (principal adviser) to the Emperor, has

mentioned that every house should have a kitchen and a bathroom. He had suggested

that one, who defeated in the open space must be fined. However, those who

defecated due to illness or any disability, must be forgiven.22

Malkani23 and other eminent scholars have sought to establish that the Bhangis

(scavengers) of today are those people who were warriors made captives after they

fell to the enemy.

The Muslims had brought with them some women who used the Burqua

(veils) to cover their faces and they did not like to defecate in the open. The bucket

privies were, therefore, designed and constructed for their defecation in Purdah.

Those made captives were forced to clean latrines like bucket privies and throw the

39

night-soil at distant places. After those captives were released, they were not

accepted by their caste-men and, hence, they formed a separate caste of Bhangis who

were re-named as Mehtar by Emperor Akbar.

According to Chaturvedi24 Kshatriyas and Bhangis have descended from the

same source. For, he says, one notices a marked similarity between them. He has

cited the following similarities:

BHANGI: Vas, Vasvar, Bir Gujar, Bhadwaria, Bisen.

MEHTAR: Bundelia, Chandal, Chauhan, Nado, Yaduvanshi, Kachhwaha, Kinwar

Thakur.

RAJPUT: (99) Bundela, (48) Bargujar Panna, (222) Panna, (295) Dajoha or

Yaduvansi Gujar Panna, (248) Rout.

The people belonging to the Chandal caste requested the census officer in

1911 to accord them the status of Brahmin as they had the Brahmin origin. In that

respect their customs, rituals and other sacramental roles are identical with those of

Brahmins. There is no doubt that the Chandals were made to dispose of sullage.

These Chandals took the initiative to enroll themselves as Brahmins only after they

became affluent. Obviously, the castes engaged in the disposal of human excreta

were not at all divergent of a single caste.25

40

Therefore, not only Kshatriyas, but also those who were engaged in cleaning

night-soil since ancient time, such as Chandals, Paulkasa and also those who were

made captives in wars either in India or in Jerusalem or other parts of the world, are

Bhangis and Mehtars of today. According to the 1931 Census, the total number of

Bhangis was estimated at 19,57,460 – 10,38,678 males and 9,18,782 females in

India.26

The foregoing account reveals that historical developments led to the

emergence of a special class of scavengers in India, known as Bhangis or Mehtars.

This class became a hereditary occupational group with a fixed role and status in the

Indian society. The unalterable role and status and the hereditary system made this

class immobile and it developed into a caste or a sub-caste occupying the lowest

stratum of society. With the allocation of hereditary occupation of scavenging and an

immobile position, the caste or sub-caste of Bhangis became an integral part of the

Indian social structure. This development was not possible without social sanctions.

The scavengers (Bhangis) were placed at the lowest rung of the caste ladder.

The nature of the job or work traditionally associated with them, or imposed upon

them, pushed them to the lowest stratum of the social hierarchy of exterior castes.

The task of cleaning night-soil was the most inferior job because this involved the

touching of human excreta by the Bhangis. Consequently, they did not get social

justice nor the humane treatment. Being economically poor and socially backward,

41

they could not revolt against the unjust sanctions nor could they rid themselves of the

scavenging work.

Mahatma Gandhi was the first to server their cause and struggled for liberating

the Bhangis from cleaning night-soil. In this way, he initiated the process leading to

the liberation of scavengers and raised their status and position in society. Before

Mahatma Gandhi appeared, nobody took up the cause of scavengers. When Mahatma

Gandhi attended the National Congress Convention in Calcutta in 1901, he asked the

volunteers not to engage scavengers. Surprisingly enough, the volunteers expressed

their inability to do anything about it. Mahatma Gandhi set the pace by cleaning his

own night-soil with the help of a broom (it was impossible for him individually to

clean the night-soil of all volunteers).

But it made a great impact on the minds of the volunteers and, thereafter,

whenever the All-India Congress Convention was organized, the volunteers

themselves had to take up the task of disposing of the night-soil.

In 1918, when Mahatma Gandhi started his Ashram at Sabarmati, he advised

the inmates of the Ashram to tackle the problem of disposal of night-soil themselves

and not to engage the professional Bhangis for that work. The inmates of the Ashram

had arranged two buckets – one for defecation and the other for urination and ablution

to water and they used to dump it in a trench and cover it with earth which was used

as a good manure. Mahatma Gandhi had got this idea of using night-soil as compost

42

in 1908 while he was living at Tolstoy Farm in South Africa. In 1984 Mrs. Indira

Gandhi disclosed in the Lok Sabha during the question hour that she herself had to

clean night-soil while living as an inmate of the Sabarmati Ashram.

It shows the concern of Mahatma Gandhi about the plight of the scavengers.

Once the Mahatma said:

‘I may not be born again and if it happens, I will like to be born in a family of

scavengers so that I may relieve them of inhuman, unhealthy and hateful

practice of carrying headloads of night-soil’.27

The Father of the Nation asked the volunteers to do social and constructive

work simultaneously fighting for the independence of India. It is surprising that

whereas in other fields of activity a number of people emerged and engaged

themselves in social programmes and other constructive works, only a very few

disciples of Mahatma Gandhi engaged themselves in the programmed of liberating

scavengers.

Notable among such persons were Appa Saheb Patwardhan, Anna Saheb

Dastane, Atre Guruje, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Jiwan Lal, Jai Ram Das, Kesho Das Sah,

Yugal Ram Vaidyave, Mama Saheb Phadke, Thakkar Bapa, Bithal Pharane, Sant

Vinoba Bhave, Ballabh Swami, S.N. Murthi, R.R. Diwakar, Rameshwari Nehru,

Bhau Narvekar, Viyogi Hari, Jaglal Choudhary, Sarayu Prasad and Rajendra Lal Das.

43

Among all, Appa Saheb Patwardhan kept himself engaged in that pious work till the

end of his life. He managed to devise a compost type of latrine, known as Gopuri.

With the beginning of the ‘Gandhi Centenary period, two prominent social

workers of India – Ishwar Bhai Patel of Gujarat and Dr. Bindeshwar Pathak of Bihar

made a tremendous impact on the minds of the planners, administrators, engineers

and social scientists, etc., regarding the liberation of scavengers’ programme. The

third name which has been added recently is that of Govind Narayan, Formerly

Chairman, Rajasthan Institute of Local Self-Government.

Notable social organizations connected with the liberation of scavengers’

programme in India are:

a) Harijan Sevak Sangh,

b) Gandhi Smarak Nidhi,

c) Safai Vidyalaya,

d) Rajasthan Institute of Local Self Government,

e) Institute of Social Studies Trust,

f) Sulabh International (formerly known as Sulabh Shauchalaya

Sansthan).

Gandhi wanted the scavengers not to carry night-soil on head and advocated

the adoption of some safer method for the disposal of night-soil, so that the manual

44

handling of night-soil could be done away with. An attempt was made when at

Sevagram (Wardha) a trench latrine was constructed.28

D. INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES

International agencies like WHO, UNICER and UNDP have played an

important role in sanitation programmes. Although they have worked for low-cost

sanitation, the national objective of liberating scavengers was also served.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO)

When in Bihar a controversy was raised by the Public Health Engineering

Department on the pollution of the drinking water source, the WHO came to the

rescue of the programme; otherwise there was a chance of the whole programme

falling flat. WHO, with the help of the Ministry of Works and housing, Government

of India, and UNICEF organized a national seminar in Patna on the conversion of

bucket privies into water-seal latrines in 1978, at which, apart from the secretaries of

Urban Development Departments and the chief engineers of almost all the State

Government, representatives from the All-India Institute of Hygiene and Public

Health, Calcutta, Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, Planning

Commission, Director-General of Health Services, World Bank, WHO and UNICEF

participated.

45

The seminar recommended that a two-pit system should be adopted in the

hand-flush water-seal toilets. This was a historical seminar and the idea of conversion

of dry latrines into hand-flush water-seal latrines started catching up. The

recommendation of the seminar was printed by WHO and circulated among the

authorities concerned, which really convinced the engineers about the adoption of this

technology. Also WHO circulated an article written by Jitendra Tuli, public officer of

WHO, which created a tremendous impact on planners, administrators, engineers, etc.

An international workshop was organized by WHO on primary health care in 1983, at

which low-cost sanitation was discussed thread-bare and it was recommended that

sanitation was very much related to health care.

UNICEF

This world agency also played an important role in the sanitation programme

of India. It helped in having hand-flush water-seal toilets in schools, besides funding

the construction of hand-flush toilets under ICDS (Integrated Child Development

Services) programme. UNICEF also involved itself in sanitation programmes in

Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and

Bihar. This international agency collaborated with WHO and the Ministry of Works

and Housing in the Patna national seminar, and it bore the entire expenditure of the

international seminar organized in Calcutta. A national workshop was organized by

UNICEF in Sri Lanka in which the author participated as a ‘resource person’.

46

UNICEF has hitherto sponsored the visit of experts of different countries, viz., Sri

Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Afghanistan, Vietnam, Ethiopia, the U.S., Indonesia etc.

to Patna see the low-cost sanitation programme. Apart from this, literature on low-

cost sanitation has been propagated through the media of mass communication

(slides, etc.). UNICEF has also sponsored the programme for imparting training to

masons and engineers in low-cost sanitary toilet.29

UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

UNDP, whose executing agency is the World Bank, started its activities in

India in the field of low-cost sanitation in 1978. First of all it got evaluated the

programme of low-cost sanitation already being carried out in Bihar and Gujarat.

Thereafter, a study on the probability of pollution of the drinking water source from

the pit latrine was done in Bihar, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu with the help of the

Prevention and Control of Water Pollution Boards of these States. UNDP also

assigned the task of preparing a design of the low-cost sanitary latrine to the Central

Building Research Institute, Roorkee, in Uttar Pradesh. It took the assistance of the

All-India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, Calcutta, Environmental

Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, Central Building Research Institute,

Roorkee, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, Public Health Institute,

Poonamallee and PRAI, Lucknow and finally got prepared a manual on low-cost

sanitary toilers for its adoption in South East Asia, Latin America and Africa.

47

UNDP was requested in 1979 by the Govt. of India to assist in preparing

master plans and preliminary engineering and feasibility reports on low-cost water-

seal latrines for Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and

Uttar Pradesh. For this purpose, 20 towns were selected in Uttar Pradesh and 50

towns each of the other six remaining States, in the first instance, by the Government

of India. The reports in respect of these States, completed in 1981, covered 110

towns and generated considerably interest in the Central and State Governments. The

studies related to the conversion of existing dry latrines into low-cost water-seal

latrines, provision of individual low-cost water-seal latrines in houses and provision

of community toilets for those households for which individual latrines could not be

constructed.

Encouraged by these studies which constituted phase-I of the project, the

Govt. of India requested UNDP to prepare similar feasibility reports for Andhra

Pradesh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala,

Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Tripura and West Bengal, Goa, Mizoram and

Pondicherry. The studies done by UNDP helped the Government launch a centrally-

sponsored scavenging elimination programme with 50 per cent grant to convert all the

dry latrines in 33 towns in 14 States of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Haryana,

Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil

Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. UNICEF financed some

48

demonstration units in a few States. The State Governments also started putting the

low-coast pour-flush latrines both in the project and non-project towns.

In the course of preparing the feasibility reports, UNDP organized, supervised

and financed, either partly or fully, a number of special studies which included

evaluation of ongoing latrine conversion programmes in Bihar, Gujarat and Tamil

Nadu, evaluation of the community latrines in Bihar maintained on the ‘pay-and-use’

basis, design criteria of pour-flush latrines, optimization of technology of pour-flush

latrines, sociological study on the impact of latrine conversion on scavengers,

institutional, financial and legal studies of 20 local bodies and soil and water pollution

studies due to on-site disposal of human excreta conducted in Bihar, Gujarat and

Tamil Nadu, as stated earlier.

UNDP has also played a very important role in the diffusion of the concept of

low-cost sanitary latrine outside India. Due to the involvement of UNDP in this

programme, those engineers, who were rather hesitant to accept this technology, now

approve of its installation in urban areas. Also, UNDP got organized an international

seminar in Calcutta, a national seminar in Delhi and two regional seminars, one in

Rajasthan and the other in Tamil Nadu. In all these four seminars the adoption of

low-cost sanitary toilers in urban areas was unanimously recommended.30

49

POPULATION OF SCHEDULED CASTE AND PERCENTAGE OF S.C.

POPULATION TO TOTAL POPULATION 2001 CENSUS31

Sl.

No.

Name of the

District

TOTAL RURAL URBAN

Male Female Total Sex

Ratio Male Female Total

Sex

Ratio Male Female Total

Sex

Ratio

1 Adilabad 231793 229421 461214 18.54 177064 175962 353026 19.31 54729 53459 108188 16.39

2 Nizamabad 170201 177957 348158 14.84 154067 161568 315635 16.43 16134 16389 32523 7.66

3 Karimnagar 325829 324417 650246 18.62 283722 282803 566525 20.14 42107 41614 83721 12.33

4 Medak 235715 233777 469492 17.58 217035 214827 431862 18.89 18680 18950 37630 9.81

5 Hyderabad 154759 152489 307248 8.02 0 0 0 0 154759 152489 307248 8.02

6 Rangareddi 263576 256469 520045 14.55 170916 166120 337036 20.59 92660 90349 183009 9.44

7 Mahabubnagar 304628 296299 600927 17.10 289694 281819 571513 18.19 14934 14480 29414 7.92

8 Nalgonda 291960 283828 575788 17.73 266585 259413 525998 18.68 25375 24415 49790 11.51

9 Warangal 279917 271468 551385 16.99 239397 231739 471136 17.96 40520 39729 80249 12.88

10 Khammam 216747 209945 426692 16.55 180305 173878 354183 17.13 36442 36067 72509 14.19

11 Srikakulam 113730 115879 229609 9.05 102146 103422 205568 9.10 11584 12457 24041 8.63

12 Vizianagaram 119116 118907 238023 10.58 95012 94111 189123 10.30 24104 24796 48900 11.86

13 Visakhapatnam 146813 144406 291219 7.60 83117 81289 164406 7.14 63696 63117 126813 8.28

14 East Godavari 442325 439325 881650 17.99 375282 370889 746171 19.90 67043 68436 135479 11.76

15 West Godavari 367155 361808 728963 19.17 324593 317991 642584 21.05 42562 43817 86379 11.50

16 Krishna 378329 368503 746832 17.83 320021 309342 629363 22.13 58308 59161 117469 8.74

17 Guntur 414712 403293 818005 18.32 343715 332885 676600 21.28 70997 70408 141405 11.00

18 Prakasam 330531 320967 651498 21.29 303760 294138 597898 23.07 26771 26829 53600 11.47

19 Nellore 295649 291508 587157 22.00 259532 255345 514877 24.88 36117 36163 72280 12.07

20 Kadapa 207302 202190 409492 15.74 181745 176899 358644 17.81 25557 25291 50848 8.65

21 Kurnool 320496 308141 628637 17.81 261552 250109 511661 18.87 58944 58032 116976 14.31

22 Anantapur 263291 251605 514896 14.14 223445 212508 435953 16.02 39846 39097 78943 8.58

23 Chittoor 353437 348883 702320 18.75 311786 307861 619647 21.11 41651 41022 82673 10.19

ANDHRA PRADESH 6228011 6111485 12339496 16.19 5164491 5054918 10219409 18.45 1063520 1056567 2120087 10.19

The above table reveals that 1,23,39,496 people belonging to Scheduled

Castes are living in Andhra Pradesh as on 2001 constituting 16.19 percent of total

population of the state. It shows a minor section i.e., 10.1% of them were urbanized.

In other words, since majority of SC’s are living in rural areas there is need to

develop educational facilities in rural areas.

50

DISTRICT WISE LITERACY RATE – 2001 CENSUS32

Sl.

No. Name of the District

ALL SC

Male Female Total Male Female Total

1 Srikakulam 67.19 43.68 55.31 63.94 42.09 52.88

2 Vizianagaram 62.37 39.91 51.07 59.99 38.61 49.31

3 Visakhapatnam 69.68 50.12 59.96 70.87 52.98 61.99

4 East Godavari 70.00 60.94 65.48 65.97 56.29 61.14

5 West Godavari 78.05 68.99 73.53 73.28 64.16 68.75

6 Krishna 74.39 63.19 68.85 69.76 57.81 63.87

7 Guntur 71.22 53.74 62.53 67.17 49.12 58.26

8 Prakasam 69.35 45.08 57.38 65.13 40.29 52.90

9 Nellore 73.67 56.38 65.08 68.22 50.24 59.27

10 Chittoor 77.62 55.78 66.77 70.87 49.00 59.99

11 Kadapa 75.83 49.54 62.83 67.75 40.42 54.25

12 Anantapur 68.38 43.34 56.13 55.90 32.48 44.48

13 Kurnool 65.96 40.03 53.22 59.04 31.95 45.77

14 Mahabubnagar 53.63 31.89 44.41 44.72 20.11 32.58

15 Rangareddi 75.26 56.49 66.16 62.63 40.83 51.89

16 Hyderabad 83.74 73.50 78.80 77.25 61.48 68.40

17 Medak 64.33 38.66 51.65 51.38 28.18 39.81

18 Nizamabad 64.91 39.48 52.02 53.15 28.68 40.57

19 Adilabad 64.98 40.30 52.68 59.89 35.24 47.60

20 Karimnagar 67.09 42.75 54.90 57.68 35.26 46.47

21 Warangal 68.88 45.09 57.13 62.26 38.97 50.80

22 Khammam 66.11 47.44 56.89 63.24 43.29 53.43

23 Nalgonda 69.23 44.68 57.15 63.60 37.38 50.68

ANDHRA PRADESH 70.32 50.43 60.47 63.51 43.35 53.52

The above table reveals that the total literacy rate among SC’s is only 53.52

whereas the general literacy is 60.47. But when compared to that of ST’s (37.04%)

the SC’s are better, but the table stresses upon literacy rates of SC’s & ST’s which

need to be increased.

51

CLASS-WISE ENROLMENT 2009-10 – S.C. (PP-V)33

Sl.

No.

Name of the

District

PRE-PRIMARY CLASS – I CLASS – II

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

1 Srikakulam 108 74 182 2254 2010 4264 2242 2120 4362

2 Vizianagaram 247 211 458 2316 2305 4621 2211 2110 4321

3 Visakhapatnam 565 525 1090 2732 2651 5383 2862 2756 5618

4 East Godavari 2359 2034 4393 8257 8041 16298 8158 8147 16305

5 West Godavari 973 843 1816 7648 7478 15126 7665 7331 14996

6 Krishna 1414 1057 2471 8281 8090 16371 7966 7827 15793

7 Guntur 1029 913 1942 9266 9183 18449 8357 8456 16813

8 Prakasam 202 140 342 9196 8995 18191 8360 8223 16583

9 Nellore 427 306 733 6295 6018 12313 5427 5348 10775

10 Chittoor 2013 1465 3478 7056 6868 13924 6560 6563 13123

11 Kadapa 677 570 1247 5582 5205 10787 4605 4552 9157

12 Anantapur 306 248 554 6515 6317 12832 5887 5638 11525

13 Kurnool 1395 1067 2462 9453 9075 18528 9008 8425 17433

14 Mahabubnagar 895 560 1455 10366 10339 20705 7571 7342 14913

15 Rangareddi 6258 5424 11682 11123 10362 21485 8872 8546 17418

16 Hyderabad 2631 2038 4669 4150 4078 8228 3679 3673 7352

17 Medak 771 599 1370 7850 7136 14986 5332 5210 10542

18 Nizamabad 790 664 1454 4067 3812 7879 3748 3653 7401

19 Adilabad 1902 1400 3302 5788 5529 11317 5128 4913 10041

20 Karimnagar 1289 954 2243 6671 6444 13115 5822 5735 11557

21 Warangal 2326 1740 4066 7643 7299 14942 5679 5511 11190

22 Khammam 94 91 185 4806 4623 9429 4154 4136 8290

23 Nalgonda 1955 1374 3329 7975 7817 15792 5872 6162 12034

ANDHRA PRADESH 30626 24297 54923 155290 149675 304965 135165 132377 267542

52

CLASS-WISE ENROLMENT 2009-10 – S.C. (PP-V)

Sl.

No.

Name of the

District

CLASS – III CLASS – IV CLASS – V

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

1 Srikakulam 2253 2204 4457 2253 2204 4457 2253 2204 4457

2 Vizianagaram 2231 2205 4436 2231 2205 4436 2231 2205 4436

3 Visakhapatnam 2792 2859 5651 2792 2859 5651 2792 2859 5651

4 East Godavari 8325 8210 16535 8325 8210 16535 8325 8210 16535

5 West Godavari 7608 7388 14996 7608 7388 14996 7608 7388 14996

6 Krishna 8094 8132 16226 8094 8132 16226 8094 8132 16226

7 Guntur 8478 8645 17123 8478 8645 17123 8478 8645 17123

8 Prakasam 7918 7979 15897 7918 7979 15897 7918 7979 15897

9 Nellore 5701 5455 11156 5701 5455 11156 5701 5455 11156

10 Chittoor 6438 6452 12890 6438 6452 12890 6438 6452 12890

11 Kadapa 4581 4522 9103 4581 4522 9103 4581 4522 9103

12 Anantapur 5386 5492 10878 5386 5492 10878 5386 5492 10878

13 Kurnool 8671 8271 16942 8671 8271 16942 8671 8271 16942

14 Mahabubnagar 7228 7053 14281 7228 7053 14281 7228 7053 14281

15 Rangareddi 8413 7950 16363 8413 7950 16363 8413 7950 16363

16 Hyderabad 3450 3443 6893 3450 3443 6893 3450 3443 6893

17 Medak 5324 4984 10308 5324 4984 10308 5324 4984 10308

18 Nizamabad 3616 3577 7193 3616 3577 7193 3616 3577 7193

19 Adilabad 5021 4691 9712 5021 4691 9712 5021 4691 9712

20 Karimnagar 6106 5909 12015 6106 5909 12015 6106 5909 12015

21 Warangal 5849 5741 11590 5849 5741 11590 5849 5741 11590

22 Khammam 4441 4216 8657 4441 4216 8657 4441 4216 8657

23 Nalgonda 5848 5906 11754 5848 5906 11754 5848 5906 11754

ANDHRA PRADESH 30626 133772 131284 265056 133772 131284 265056 133772 131284

53

CLASS-WISE ENROLMENT 2009-10 – S.C. (PP-V)

Sl.

No.

Name of the

District

Class – VI Class – VII CLASS – VIII

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

1 Srikakulam 1826 1934 3760 1826 1934 3760 1826 1934 3760

2 Vizianagaram 1880 1846 3726 1880 1846 3726 1880 1846 3726

3 Visakhapatnam 2529 2586 5115 2529 2586 5115 2529 2586 5115

4 East Godavari 7367 7353 14720 7367 7353 14720 7367 7353 14720

5 West Godavari 6331 6400 12731 6331 6400 12731 6331 6400 12731

6 Krishna 6981 7062 14043 6981 7062 14043 6981 7062 14043

7 Guntur 7093 6843 13936 7093 6843 13936 7093 6843 13936

8 Prakasam 5493 5341 10834 5493 5341 10834 5493 5341 10834

9 Nellore 5039 4997 10036 5039 4997 10036 5039 4997 10036

10 Chittoor 6132 6210 12342 6132 6210 12342 6132 6210 12342

11 Kadapa 3736 3617 7353 3736 3617 7353 3736 3617 7353

12 Anantapur 4474 4595 9069 4474 4595 9069 4474 4595 9069

13 Kurnool 6799 5943 12742 6799 5943 12742 6799 5943 12742

14 Mahabubnagar 5515 5184 10699 5515 5184 10699 5515 5184 10699

15 Rangareddi 7253 6811 14064 7253 6811 14064 7253 6811 14064

16 Hyderabad 2760 2892 5652 2760 2892 5652 2760 2892 5652

17 Medak 4723 4481 9204 4723 4481 9204 4723 4481 9204

18 Nizamabad 3212 3070 6282 3212 3070 6282 3212 3070 6282

19 Adilabad 4382 4379 8761 4382 4379 8761 4382 4379 8761

20 Karimnagar 6438 6318 12756 6438 6318 12756 6438 6318 12756

21 Warangal 5846 5929 11775 5846 5929 11775 5846 5929 11775

22 Khammam 4109 3900 8009 4109 3900 8009 4109 3900 8009

23 Nalgonda 5655 5444 11099 5655 5444 11099 5655 5444 11099

ANDHRA PRADESH 30626 115573 113135 228708 115573 113135 228708 115573 113135

54

CLASS-WISE ENROLMENT 2009-10 – S.C. (PP-V)

Sl.

No.

Name of the

District

CLASS – IX CLASS – X CLASS – XI

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

1 Srikakulam 1646 1655 3301 1646 1655 3301 1646 1655 3301

2 Vizianagaram 1689 1531 3220 1689 1531 3220 1689 1531 3220

3 Visakhapatnam 2127 2170 4297 2127 2170 4297 2127 2170 4297

4 East Godavari 6313 6630 12943 6313 6630 12943 6313 6630 12943

5 West Godavari 5370 5478 10848 5370 5478 10848 5370 5478 10848

6 Krishna 6122 6108 12230 6122 6108 12230 6122 6108 12230

7 Guntur 5681 5286 10967 5681 5286 10967 5681 5286 10967

8 Prakasam 4325 3725 8050 4325 3725 8050 4325 3725 8050

9 Nellore 4334 4203 8537 4334 4203 8537 4334 4203 8537

10 Chittoor 5897 5544 11441 5897 5544 11441 5897 5544 11441

11 Kadapa 3401 2957 6358 3401 2957 6358 3401 2957 6358

12 Anantapur 4265 4161 8426 4265 4161 8426 4265 4161 8426

13 Kurnool 5861 4717 10578 5861 4717 10578 5861 4717 10578

14 Mahabubnagar 5306 4375 9681 5306 4375 9681 5306 4375 9681

15 Rangareddi 6543 6457 13000 6543 6457 13000 6543 6457 13000

16 Hyderabad 2206 2609 4815 2206 2609 4815 2206 2609 4815

17 Medak 4735 4466 9201 4735 4466 9201 4735 4466 9201

18 Nizamabad 3178 2947 6125 3178 2947 6125 3178 2947 6125

19 Adilabad 4095 4008 8103 4095 4008 8103 4095 4008 8103

20 Karimnagar 6645 6744 13389 6645 6744 13389 6645 6744 13389

21 Warangal 5579 5418 10997 5579 5418 10997 5579 5418 10997

22 Khammam 3688 3772 7460 3688 3772 7460 3688 3772 7460

23 Nalgonda 5951 5694 11645 5951 5694 11645 5951 5694 11645

ANDHRA PRADESH 30626 104957 100655 205612 104957 100655 205612 104957 100655

55

CLASS-WISE ENROLMENT 2009-10 – S.C. (PP-V)

Sl. No. Name of the District CLASS – XII

Boys Girls Total

1 Srikakulam 131 228 359

2 Vizianagaram 115 53 168

3 Visakhapatnam 88 162 250

4 East Godavari 42 177 219

5 West Godavari 12 190 202

6 Krishna 47 104 151

7 Guntur 60 171 231

8 Prakasam 40 271 311

9 Nellore 181 201 382

10 Chittoor 5 300 305

11 Kadapa 5 38 43

12 Anantapur 60 143 203

13 Kurnool 9 4 13

14 Mahabubnagar 181 242 423

15 Rangareddi 130 137 267

16 Hyderabad 21 24 45

17 Medak 95 137 232

18 Nizamabad 137 1 138

19 Adilabad 195 188 383

20 Karimnagar 134 187 321

21 Warangal 172 262 434

22 Khammam 70 130 200

23 Nalgonda 79 47 126

ANDHRA PRADESH 2009 3397 5406

Though the enrolment of SC’s is good by seeing the above table their drop-out

rates are alarming if we see the table in the following.

56

DROP OUT RATE I-X (S.C.) 2009-201034

Sl.

No.

Name of the

District

Enrolment in Class I in 2000-

2001

Enrolment in Class-X in

2009-2010 Drop out Rate

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

1 Srikakulam 2988 3040 6028 1668 1678 3346 44.17 44.81 44.49

2 Vizianagaram 3199 3226 6425 1554 1459 3013 51.43 54.77 53.11

3 Visakhapatnam 3863 3781 7644 1984 2001 3985 48.65 47.07 47.87

4 East Godavari 13235 12996 26231 6028 6400 12428 54.45 50.76 52.62

5 West Godavari 11066 11032 22098 4717 5103 9820 57.37 53.74 55.56

6 Krishna 11996 11947 23943 5554 5384 10938 53.70 54.93 54.32

7 Guntur 14404 14436 28840 5165 4759 9924 64.14 67.03 65.59

8 Prakasam 13932 13818 27750 4177 3458 7635 70.02 74.97 72.49

9 Nellore 8067 7977 16044 4331 4086 8417 46.31 48.78 47.54

10 Chittoor 8751 8541 17292 6055 5456 11511 30.81 36.12 33.43

11 Kadapa 6377 6166 12543 3260 2741 6001 48.88 55.55 52.16

12 Anantapur 8931 8875 17806 4187 3881 8068 53.12 56.27 54.69

13 Kurnool 13894 13441 27335 5167 3914 9081 62.81 70.88 66.78

14 Mahabubnagar 17010 15551 32561 5386 4075 9461 68.34 73.80 70.94

15 Rangareddi 14851 13870 28721 6332 6379 12711 57.36 54.01 55.74

16 Hyderabad 5139 5117 10256 2110 2508 4618 58.94 50.99 54.97

17 Medak 14381 13568 27949 4574 4178 8752 68.19 69.21 68.69

18 Nizamabad 8984 8469 17453 3285 3025 6310 63.43 64.28 63.85

19 Adilabad 10363 10137 20500 4741 4389 9130 54.25 56.70 55.46

20 Karimnagar 13695 12874 26569 6841 7233 14074 50.05 43.82 47.03

21 Warangal 16569 16327 32896 5873 5836 11709 64.55 64.26 64.41

22 Khammam 6093 6065 12158 3463 3563 7026 43.16 41.25 42.21

23 Nalgonda 13695 13777 27472 5878 5587 11465 57.08 59.45 58.27

ANDHRA PRADESH 241483 235031 476514 102330 97093 199423 57.06 58.71 58.15

The above table reveals that the total drop-out rate among SC’s of the State is

58.15, i.e., only 41.85 students per 100 SC school-going age boys and girls are

studying upto X class. It shows a partial illiteracy among the SC’s. Here is the point

where the Governments are supposed to look at and act accordingly to change the

alarming situation.

57

R E F E R E N C E S

1 S. Radha Krishnan, Religion and Culture, Hind Pocket Books, Delhi, 1968,

pp.7-50.

2 For details, Kailash Rai, Indian Legal and Constitutional History, Allahabad Law

Agency, Faridabad, 2004.

3 Ibid.

4 R.C. Chandana, Spatial Dimensions of Scheduled Castes in India, Intellectual

Publishing House, New Delhi, 1989.

5 Report of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, 1986-87,

p. 149.

6 Report of the Working Group on the Development of Scheduled Castes, 1980-85 of

Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, 1980.

7 See Central Law Agency, Constitution of India, Allahabad, 1983.

8 Statement of Sri Ram Vilas Pashwan, Union Minister of Labour Welfare on 4-1-

1990.

9 Resolution of Ministry of Home Affairs No. 13013/9/77-SCT (1), dt. 21-7-1978.

10 Resolution of Ministry of Welfare No.BC 13015/12/86 SCDVI, dt. 1-9-1987.

11 B.D. Sharma, Commissioner of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in 28

th

Report, 1989.

12 Ibid.

13 Dr. D.R. Sachdeva, Social Welfare Administration in India, Kitab Mahal,

Allahabad, 2000, p. 430.

58

14

Ibid., p. 431.

15 M.K. Gandhi in Young India, 6-8-1931.

16 M.K. Gandhi, The Removal of Untouchability, Navajivan Publishing House,

Ahmedabad, pp. 14-15.

17 M.K. Gandhi, Harijan, dt. 11-2-1933.

18 Christopher Hamlin, “Sewage: Waste of Resource? A Historical Perspective”,

Scavenger, 12 (3), 1982.

19 Bindeshwar Pathak, Road to Freedom: A Sociological Study on the Abolition of

Scavenging in India, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, pp. 37-43.

20 Ibid., pp. 41-42.

21 Amritlal Nagar, Nachyo Bahul Gopal, Rajpal & Sons, Delhi, 1980, p. 8.

22 Vachaspati, Artha Sastra of Kautilya, Chaukhamba Prakashan, Varanasi, 1977,

pp.305, 350.

23 See N.R. Malkani, Report of the Scavenging Conditions Enquiry Committee,

Ministry of Home Affairs, 1960.

24 D.S. Chaturvedi, Patel Prabhakar, Rajpal & Sons, Delhi, 1980, pp. 22-23.

25 Census of India, 1911, Vol. V.

26 Census of India, 1931, Vol. I, India, Part-II, Imperial Tables.

27 Bindeshwar Pathak, Op.Cit., p. 40.

28 Ibid., pp. 40-41.

29 Ibid., pp. 81-83.

30 Ibid., pp. 83-84.

59

31

Educational Statistics 2009-2010, Commissioner & Director of School Education,

Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, 2010, pp. 7-8.

32 Ibid., pp. 13-14.

33 Ibid., pp.35-36.

34 Ibid., pp. 132-33.

***