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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
“The literature in any field forms the foundation upon which all future work will
be built”
-WALTOR R. BORG
Having specified the problem, listing the objectives, formulating the hypotheses
in previous chapter, the present chapter deals with review of the relevant literature. The
review of related literature is an essential part of any investigation. Its importance
cannot be denied in any research. According to William Wiersma (1986), “The review
of related literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It
should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer has knowledge
about his own area”.
Review of related literature also point out the gaps that exist and the direction it
should take along with providing necessary background in the light of which the results
of the present study are to be interpreted. The main purpose of survey of the literature is
not compilation but analytical review of the various researches.
Although it was not possible for on the part of the investigator to get access to
the entire published and unpublished researches in the field, yet an attempt has been
made to review the available literature on the area under investigation in an exhaustive
manner. For the sake of convenience, the investigator has divided the work under the
following sequence.
1 Studies related to Educational Diagnosis
2 Studies related to Instructional Modules
3 Studies related to Diagnosis and Remediation
2.1 STUDIES RELATED TO EDUCATIONAL DIAGNOSIS
In this section, an attempt has been made to review the studies related to
diagnosis of difficulties faced by the students in different school subjects. The review
of these studies will help in planning the present study. It is with this view that studies
conducted in India and Abroad are given here.
Sankara (1957) studied the difficulties experienced by Pupils of Standard IX in
factorization. The study revealed that a great majority of the pupils experienced
difficulties in dealing with negative numbers, applying rules of signs, factorization of
polynomials and in recognizing common factor.
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Chaudhary (1958) investigated into difficulties of class X pupils of Delhi High
Schools and Higher Secondary Schools in solving geometrical exercises and identified
the following difficulties: lack of understanding and interpreting geometrical exercises;
reasoning and interpreting the geometrical figures.
Singh and Srivastava (1960) conducted a diagnostic study of common errors
committed by students of standard VlII in written English, their prevention and cure.
The study revealed that lack of remedial and preventive techniques in english is one of
the major reasons for committing errors in english.
Krishne Kurnari (1964) studied the difficulties experienced by the pupils of
standard VII in fundamental operations with decimals. The study revealed that many of
the common types of errors committed by students were either due to lack of mastery of
concepts or due to insufficient practice in operation with decimals.
Jacob (1965) studied the errors committed by the students of standard Vlll in
addition and subtraction in algebra. The study revealed that majority of students under
study had difficulty with terms having powers and were not able to distinguish between
like terms and unlike terms and showed difficulty to follow the symbolic representation
of algebra.
Elias (1966) conducted a study to identify the common errors committed by the
pupils of standard VI in fractions using a diagnostic test. The major findings revealed
that a great majority of students experienced difficulty in division of fractions,
especially with mixed fractions and multiplication and division.
Lndapurkar (1968) conducted a diagnostic study of errors in learning english of
middle school pupils of Chandrapur district. The study revealed that verbal inflection
errors were frequent in Standards VI, VII and VIII.
Lype (1969) constructed a diagnostic test in square root for pupils of standard
IX. The difficulties experienced by the pupils in different operations were the
following: fundamental operations especially in multiplication and division and units of
measurements.
Luke (1970) studied the difficulties faced by X standard students of Kollam
District in learning English grammar. A diagnostic test was administered to 600 pupils
of standard X. The study revealed that the majority of the students under study had
difficulties with English grammar.
Ammal (1972) analyzed the linguistic difficulties in learning Hindi, on a sample
of 600 Secondary School pupils in Kerala. Linguistic analysis through a specially
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designed test revealed the relative difficulty among 27 different linguistic areas. The
study revealed that the method of teaching Hindi language was inadequate and
uninteresting. It also revealed that the majority of the school children exhibited
deficiencies in learning Hindi language.
Jaleel (1975) conducted an experimental study to test the effectiveness of
diagnostic approach in teaching Mathematics in standard VIII. The study conducted on
a sample of 440 students revealed that diagnostic approach in teaching Mathematics
was effective for the total sample and sub samples.
Goraya (1979) conducted a diagnostic study in Mathematics at primary level.
The study revealed that most of the errors committed by students reflect the poor
formation of decimal concepts due to inadequate background. The study also revealed
that carrying in addition and borrowing in subtraction were considered difficult due to
the presence of decimal points.
Nair (1980) conducted a diagnostic study of the difficulties of university
entrants in the use of chemical equations. The necessary data were collected by
administering a diagnostic test in chemical symbols, formulae and equations. The study
revealed that the nature and extent of errors committed by the students in the learning
of chemical symbols, formulae and equations is influenced by certain selected socio-
personal factors.
Reeta (1983) conducted a study on the procedures adopted and the difficulties
experienced by pupils of Vl standard in solving verbal problems in arithmetic. The
study revealed that the pupils experienced difficulties in understanding the verbal
problems; meanings of items in the problem solving and the problems having more than
one part.
Saly (1984) studied the difficulties experienced by pupils in the learning of
arabic in the secondary schools of Kerala. The areas of difficulty identified were:
different types of word order; paraphrasing preposition, adjective and verbs and
reconstruction of sentences.
Mathew (1985) identified the difficulties in learning chemistry experienced by
educationally backward students at pre-degree level. The results of the study revealed
that the pre-degree students experienced a high level of difficulty in learning chemistry
and this is acute in the case of educationally backward students.
Sebastian (1985) studied the difficulties experienced by educationally backward
students at pre-degree level in learning Botany. The major causes identified were lack
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of pre-requisite knowledge, knowledge in related subjects, ability in concept attainment
and comprehension of abstract knowledge. The study revealed that the low achievers
have more learning difficulty than high achievers
Uzhuvathu (1985) studied the difficulties experienced by educationally
backward students at pre-degree level in learning physics. The study revealed that
pupils experienced great difficulty in learning Physics at first year pre-degree level and
this was acute in the case of educationally backward students.
GSDGIE (1985) conducted a study of the courses of large failure in
mathematics at the S.S.C. examination. The sources of data were the mark-sheets of
S.S.C. examination and a sample of randomly selected answer scripts. The tool used
was questionnaire meant for school. The data was congested into largest. The sample
comprises 27990 people for the algebra and 19869 for geometry out of total of 256940.
The major findings of inquiry were:
i) Results in algebra and geometry were comparable and it could not be concluded
that more failures were due to more failures in algebra or in geometry.
ii) In algebra about 37% candidates secured less than 28 marks. The distribution
level was skewed in both cases indicating an unsatisfactory learning of the
subjects.
iii) The sampled schools were small in size. About 46% of the schools had a strength
fewer than 300 students and about 75% had a strength fewer than 500 students.
iv) The percentage of the successful candidates in mathematics in 1979 was lower
than 1976 and 1975. Reasons for failure in mathematics were inadequate attention
paid to some difficult topics, inadequate motivation for study and inadequate
guidance provided to the pupils for study.
Mohammed (1986) conducted a study to identify the errors committed by the
pre-degree students in writing English and found that the majority of the students
committed errors in tenses, preposition, noun and relative clauses, passive voice and
auxiliary verbs.
Harlem and Treagust (1987) constructed a two-tier multiple choice instrument
for the secondary school students. The result of the study revealed that a high
percentage of secondary students do not comprehend the nature and function of
respiration and have little understanding of the relationship between photosynthesis and
respiration in plants.
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Scott (1988) studied the effectiveness of a Computerized Diagnostic Inventory
on Basic Mathematical skills. A Computerized Diagnostic Mathematics Instrument
(CDMIIMS) was designed parallel to the commercial paper and pencil inventory
published by McGraw Hill. Analysis of the findings revealed that the CDMIIMS
requires significantly less time and fewer questions than that of the paper and pencil
inventory.
Treagust (1988) developed Diagnostic tests in Chemistry and Biology to
evaluate students' misconceptions and errors committed in Science. Analysis of the
results of the tests revealed that Diagnostic tests were very much effective for
identification of errors and misconceptions of both teachers and students in Chemistry
and Biology.
Peterson et. al. (1989) studied the misunderstandings of grade XI and grade XII
students in Chemistry (co-valent bonding and structure) using a Diagnostic instrument.
The results of the study indicated that the two-tier Diagnostic instrument provided a
feasible approach for evaluating students' understanding and for identifying
misconceptions and misunderstanding in the Chemistry.
Jose (1990) studied the difficulties experienced by Vocational Higher
Secondary students of Kerala in learning Botany. The study revealed that VHSE
students experienced difficulty in the skill of hierarchical learning and in attaining
concepts of Botany.
Varghese (1991) studied the difficulty in learning fractions by pupils of standard
VI. The study revealed that the following areas are difficult for the majority of students
due to the lack of understanding of fundamental concepts: changing the whole number
into a fraction; changing an improper fraction into a mixed fraction and addition and
subtraction of improper and mixed fraction.
Banerjee (1993) assessed the students' and teachers' understanding of Chemical
Equilibrium. A Diagnostic test on Chemical Equilibrium was administered to collect
necessary data. The study revealed that both teachers and students committed errors in
the following concepts in Chemistry: Le Chatlier's Principle, rate and equilibrium,
applications of equilibrium to acids, base and ionic solutions.
Jasmine (1994) studied the difficulties experienced by the pupils of standard Ill
in computation by a Diagnostic test. The study revealed that the level of attainment of
students was very poor for the division of four digit numbers with one digit number.
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Jayalakshmi (1994) studied the difficulties in computations experienced by the
students in standard IV. The study revealed that out of the fifty teaching points studied,
the level of attainment is very good in the case of six teaching points, good in the case
of twenty three teaching points, satisfactory in the case of fifteen teaching points, poor
in the case of five teaching points and very poor in the case of only one teaching point
due to the lack of understanding the basic concepts of computation.
Unisa (1994) identified the difficulties experienced by lower primary school
children in learning Science. The study was intended to prepare a diagnostic test in LPS
Science so as to identify the difficult areas of knowledge, understanding, application
and to arrange the various categories of difficult areas on the decreasing order of
difficulty. The study revealed that the most difficult area in the cited categories is
application.
Rani (1996) investigated the causes of difficulties experienced in teaching
English poetry at the secondary level. The study revealed that the difficulties
experienced by pupils were due to the inadequate library facilities, illiterate parents,
and un-interesting themes of poems and ineffective method of teaching.
Sindhu (1996) studied the difficulties experienced by V standard pupils in
learning fractions. The study revealed that many of the common errors made by pupils
were due to lack of understanding of principles involved in addition, subtraction and
multiplication with fraction and inadequate practice in doing problems in fraction
Jayasree (1997) identified the difficulties experienced by the pupils of standard
VIII in expanding algebraic expression using identities with the help of a diagnostic
test. The study revealed that the level of attainment is poor in the case of classification
of open and closed sentence, finding the always true sentences and product numbers
using identities. The study also revealed that there is no mastery of the rules of signs
and many pupils do not seem to have a clear grasp of the identities.
Beebar (1998) analyzed the difficulties experienced in learning science as
revealed through their understanding of gas exchange in plants. The study revealed that
during interviews, the students in the group below median were often able to recall
facts and apply knowledge, but they had failed to recall and apply the knowledge while
responding to the written questions.
Duchovic (1998) in his diagnostic study discussed two techniques which have
been utilized for five semesters in general chemistry courses. The techniques used were
re-package system and writing exercises based on the laboratory portion of the course.
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Both the techniques were found to be equally effective for learning chemistry at
undergraduate level without any misconception and difficulties.
Dhanya (1999) conducted a diagnostic study to identify the difficulties
experienced in learning algebra at the secondary level. Majority of the students had not
understood the meaning of like terms and committed errors in concepts of like and
unlike terms.
Sushma (1999) analyzed the factors affecting reading difficulties of the students
of college of Micronesia. The study revealed that the factor contributed to the problems
fall in the following areas: language, educational background, culture, motivation,
learning and reading strategies of the students and the teaching methodologies,
institutional policies and sociopolitical conditions of the school.
Vasudevan (2003) conducted a Diagnostic study to identify the difficulties
experienced by pupils studying in Standard VIII, in the computation of negative
numbers. The study revealed that majority of the students faced difficulty in carrying
out the fundamental operations involving negative numbers due to lack of clarity on
rules of fundamental operations.
Sushma (2004) conducted a comparative study on arithmetic errors of primary
school students in government and public school. The study revealed that students
committed maximum mistakes in addition of decimals. Many students committed
mistake while applying tables which show that tables were not learnt by them and
majority of the students did not know how and where to apply unitary method.
Sarita (2005) conducted a study on development and empirical validation of
algorithms on laws of logarithm for XI grade students. The main objectives of the study
were to evolve ‘Algorithm’ on law ‘Logarithms’ and empirical validations of the
algorithms. The study revealed that students achieve 95% accuracy in calculating
problems on laws of logarithm. and students achieve 85% success on criterion test
prepared for assessing achievement on laws of logarithm.
Effandi Zakaria (2010) conducted a study to determine the students’ errors in
learning quadratic equations. Diagnostic test was used as the instrument of this study
that included three components factorization, completing the sequence and quadratic
formula. Diagnostic interview was also used to identify at which level student errors
occurs in solving problems. The findings showed that most students make error in
transformation and process skill in solving quadratic equation. There were no errors
found in reading. The number of students who made encoding error and carelessness
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was small. The students’ error in solving quadratic equation was due to their
weaknesses in mastering topics such as algebra, fractions, negative numbers and
algebraic equations.
Gunawardena Egodawatte (2011) conducted a study to investigate secondary
school students’ errors and misconceptions in algebra. The results indicated a number
of error categories under each area. Some errors emanated from misconceptions under
variables. The main reason for misconceptions was the lack of understanding of the
basic concept of the variable in different contexts. Inadequate understanding of the uses
of the equal sign and its properties when it is used in an equation was a major problem
that hindered solving equations correctly. The main difficulty in word problems was
translating them from natural language to algebraic language. Students used guessing or
trial and error methods extensively in solving word problems.
Vijaya Bhaskar (2014) conducted a study to diagnose errors committed by VIII
class students in Geometry. The study revealed that students committed more number
of errors under the objective application when compared to other objectives. Students
committed more number of errors under the content area “Angles”. Students were
found to be very poor in skills required in geometry.
After going through the studies mentioned in the preceding pages, it seems that
almost in all the important school subjects such as Hindi, English, Chemistry, biology
etc., difficulties faced by the students are diagnosed. Some studies were conducted to
diagnose the difficulties faced by students in the subject of mathematics and a few
studies were conducted to diagnose the difficulties faced by students in geometry.
2.2 STUDIES RELATED TO INSTRUCTIONAL MODULES
The studies related to instructional modules will be reviewed in this section. It is
acceptable that studies conducted in different socio-cultural context may have
limitations in wider generalizations. In spite of this, the review of these studies is very
likely to have a bearing on the present investigation, more so because the study is of
experimental nature. This will help not only in planning the study but also in discussion
of results and drawing conclusions. It is with this view that the studies conducted
Abroad and in India are given here in two parts. In the first part, the related studies
conducted abroad will be presented and the second part will deal with the review of the
studies conducted in India.
STUDIES CONDUCTED ABROAD
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Merwin and Donald (1972) conducted an experiment to find out the
effectiveness of self-instructional modules in preparing secondary school social studies
teacher trainees. He found significant differences between the control group learning
through conventional method and the experimental group learning through self-
instructional module on the acquisition of knowledge and skills essential in planning,
questioning and testing for higher cognitive process, favoring the experimental group.
The experimental group found the module to be an enjoyable and effective device for
developing understanding and skills in planning, questioning and testing.
Todd (1972) developed and evaluated a module for individualized self-directed
instruction at the college level. The study showed that the students using instructional
module were able to achieve objectives of the course in a manner different from normal
college instruction. In addition, the instructional module was found to be better than the
instructor's method in another class.
Williams and Keilkkar (1973) studied the effectiveness of module and the
findings indicated that the teacher acquired the skills of the modules and used these
skills in their classrooms. Teacher's use of the skill had an effect on the learning of the
students. An experimental study to investigate the feasibility of the modules, by
comparing students who were taught by proficiency modules, with students taught by
traditional approach was conducted by Dishner (1973) also.
Donald and Mervin (1973) conducted a study to investigate the effectiveness of
a series of self-instructional modules (SIMS) for training secondary level social studies
teacher trainees to develop and ask higher level questions. The study showed that self-
instructional module is more superior to conventional methods for developing concepts
and skills.
Hurst (1974) designed flexible competency based learning module to change
elementary teacher trainee's knowledge, skills and attitudes towards enquiry teaching.
The effectiveness of the module was compared in three classroom settings,
individualized group and control group. The modules are used as syllabus for the
course and as a guide for classroom and out of class activities. The control group
received no instructions related to enquiry teaching. The pre-test, post-test treatment as
control group design was used to analyze the results. The statistical tests employed
found that there were:
i) Significant gains in the number of objectives achieved after instructions of social
studies in the treatment group.
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ii) Social studies in the two treatment groups have significant gain in attitudes
towards enquiry.
iii) In both individualized and group settings, teaching learning modules may serve as
means to creative instruction in teacher education in the future.
Sasscar (1974) made a study of the development, implementation and
evaluation of a modularized, student centered general biology curriculum at the college
level. In the curricular design, major units of study were isolated and broken into units.
In each one of them, a basic module was planned to be exercised by all students. In that
module a concept was introduced with a minimum of information, following that there
was a set of option modules from which the student could select one to several to
complete the unit, the minimum path being the basic module and one option module.
The experimental group used the modules whereas the control group used a standard
method. The findings of the study were the following.
i) Highly significant differences in test scores means favored the modular students
in the option area.
ii) T-test comparisons of attitudes towards Science showed significant differences
between modular students and control students, favoring modular students.
Lamb (1975) developed and evaluated a module designed to train science
teachers to ask a wide variety of cognitive questions. Three experiments were designed
to evaluate the effectiveness of the module. Group I worked through the module and
were supervised by co-operating teachers who were module trained. Group II worked
through the module and were supervised by untrained co-operating teachers. Group III
did not work through the module and their co-operating teachers were untrained. The
result of the study showed significant increase in the cognitive variety of questioning
for Group I and Group II and a slight increase for Group III.
Windell (1975) from his study with self-instructional teacher training module
revealed that the modules were effective to produce reliable changes in trainee's
knowledge and skill in the use of techniques for detaining the reading level of the
exceptional children.
Pultroak (1975) worked on the development and field testing of a lab module
for instruction in vascular plant taxonomy. A self-paced lab module in vascular plant
taxonomy was developed to aid undergraduate biology students in understanding both
traditional and contemporary activities of the plant taxonomist. Results showed that the
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general biology students preferred the modular method of instruction than the
traditional type.
Anderson (1975) made an experimental study on the effects of a modular
biology course on attitudes towards biology. His findings were the following:-
i) There is significant difference in attitude between students who completed the
modular course of study and the students who had traditional lecture classes.
ii) Students who had the modular course showed higher attitudinal gain scores than
the students in the control group.
iii) There is a significant difference in achievement between the experimental group
and the control group with the experimental group scoring higher.
On the basis of the findings, he concluded that some evidences for the
effectiveness of the modular course of study in changing student’s attitude as well as
improving achievement were found.
Heller and Gate (1976) conducted a study to compare the effectiveness of
instruction using a learning module approach with that of instruction using a traditional
lecture discussions method in an undergraduate course entitled 'Psychology of
Exceptional Child'. The study revealed that it is possible to experiment within a
traditional college of educational framework with learning modules. Both approaches
could benefit students and a combination of the two might be a viable and justifiable
strategy.
Kazerani (1977) compared a modular system to a Professor/Lecturer system as a
method of proceeding in-service education. An alternative delivery system
(development of modules and supporting media with the course taught by a person
from geographical area) was developed and compared with the traditional
Professor/Lecturer method. The students who studied through the alternative delivery
system scored significantly higher on the knowledge of the module concept than the
control Group on each of the eight modules except one.
Vaughan (1977) compared modular textbook instruction in an individualized,
competency-based teacher education program. The results showed that all subjects in
both treatment groups were able to master each of the teaching competencies involved
in the study. However, the result of the study indicated a lack of significant differences
between treatments.
Halyard (1977) did an experimental study to determine empirically if the use of
biology module which made available optional learning materials resulted in greater
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achievement than the use of a module containing the same content with no optional
learning materials. Two modules and all divisions were developed by the investigator.
One was a control module and the other, the experimental one. The modules were used
for one week. The pre-test and post-test were given. The major findings of the study
were the following.
i) Achievement differences were detected at any cognitive level between the
groups.
ii) Most of the students using experimental module did not use the opinion available
to them.
iii) Modules that lacked optional learning materials were equally as effective as
module that made optional learning material available.
Amien (1979) conducted a study in an Indonesian school in standard VIII. The
control class was taught through a traditional teacher centered method using a lecture-
cum-demonstration approach. Two treatment classes were taught through a student
centered method and using a modular approach. The findings of the study revealed that
in achievement and retention the treatment classes were significantly higher than the
control classes. There were no significant differences in the personality factors between
groups. The correlations between pre-test scores and post-test scores revealed no
significant differences in the effect of the instructional methods.
Broome (1980) prepared a module on "Spherical Trigonometry" to provide
fresh challenging and unique topic for high school students and to enrich the
mathematical background of the students by exposure to a non-Euclidean geometry, the
geometry of a sphere. This module is designed for use at the high school level as a 4-8
hour topic.
Ames (1981) developed a videotaped self-instructional complete training
module to prepare parents, para-professionals in the use of behavior modification
techniques for work with profoundly, severely and moderately retarded adolescents and
adults learning self-care skills, home living skills. The revision committee was of the
opinion that such a self-teaching module would be a useful training instrument for
retarded persons, college students in human services curricular as well as para-
professional technicians and professionals working with the developmentally disabled.
Madjiman (1982) investigated the implication of peer tutors and module
mediated mastery learning. The basic question was: Can teachers using modules and
peer tutors apply the mastery learning strategy? The result showed that modules and
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peer-tutors were effective mediators of the mastery learning strategy when the student
index of learning effectiveness was used to measure achievement. Peer tutors and
module mediated mastery learning was more effective than the other strategies in
responding to the complexity of learning materials.
Poecoraro (1982) developed a module on interpersonal skills for home
economics teachers and Louisiana and valuated it in two teaching modes. The study
involved two phases-phase I consisted of the development of the module and phase II
consisted of the implementation of workshops in ten parishes at which the module was
tested and evaluated. Cognitive and affective pre-tests and post-tests were administered
to both groups. Analysis of data involved ‘t’ tests and analysis of co-variance. There
was a significant difference at the 0.05 level of confidence between the mean cognitive
and affective adjusted post-test scores of the teachers when the groups were compared.
Results indicated that completion of the module in each mode produced significant
differences in the cognitive and affective development of teachers.
Lampe (1984) developed and evaluated five self-instructional modules to
provide basic knowledge on the identification and correction of reading difficulties.
The modules were used for diagnostic prescriptive reading instruction, word
recognition skills and the informal assessment of reading difficulties and the correction
of reading difficulties. Results from the evaluation showed that the modules were
suitable for the intended purpose.
Greenberg (1984) investigated the effectiveness of a multimedia functional
reading module. Use of the videocassette lesson with computer practice was compared
to videocassette use with paper and pencil practice. The modules focused on the
functional reading skill. The t- test, Pearson-product moment correlation and chi-square
test were applied to analyze the data. The findings revealed that no significant
difference existed between the post-test performances of the two groups. There was
significant correlation between strategy scores and application scores. There was a
significant score favoring the computer treatment in response to a question about
enjoyment of the follow up practice.
Hansberry (1985) developed and evaluated an independent learning module that
a nursing instructor can use as an adjunct teaching aid for teaching the exchange system
for meal planning in a medical surgical nursing course. Findings revealed that the
experimental group performed better in the post cognitive examination than those
taught in a regular medical surgical nursing class.
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Rae (1985) conducted a study on "The development and evaluation of a self-
instructional learning module" for associates of science degree nursing students. The
purpose of the study was to determine the effects of self-instructional module and the
study employed a non-equivalent control group design with random assignment of
intact groups. The sample for this study consisted of 78 associate degree nursing
students. Submitting the scores to an analysis of covariance at the 0.05 significant level,
revealed that the experimental group performed better on the post-cognitive
examination than those taught the exchange system for real planning in a regular
medical-surgical nursing class.
Ward (1985) conducted a study on modular access and progression routes
support issues and student directed learning. The effectiveness of modularizing access
provided by the University of Derby was examined for 299 adult students. No
significant differences appeared in retention, but the modular approach had increased
retention of unskilled and low achieving students. Students with lower entry
qualification had higher achievement than similar students did before modularization.
Mohammad (1988) developed and evaluated a modularized individualized
instruction science course in Kuwaiti secondary schools. The purpose of the study was
to develop, implement, and evaluate a science course in accordance with modularized,
individualized instruction principles. Samples included 497 pupils and 16 teachers.
Both treatment groups were administered pre-test, post-test, achievement and attitude
tests. Major finding of the test was that modularized, individualized instruction was
significantly effective in producing overall achievement.
Al-quattan (1989) developed, implemented and evaluated a science course in
accordance with modularized individualized instructions principles in Kuwait
Secondary Schools. The modularized individualized instructions were found to be
significantly effective in producing overall achievement in the first grade pupils at
secondary schools when compared whereas traditional instructions were not effective in
introducing favorable attitude toward science in the pupils. A remarkable decline was
observed in their attitudes.
Greager and Murray (1991) offered modules to the teachers. They found that the
modules helped the students to learn as well as provided better chances to the students
to interact with the teacher because it reduced the routine instruction time.
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John (2000) conducted a research on self- instructional methods as a
reinforcement strategy in learning genetics among high secondary students. The
objectives of the study were to develop and evaluate the programmed instructional
packages (PIM) and computer instructional packages (CAIM) on ‘Genetics’ for
teaching the standard XII students selected for the study, to develop tools to measure
the effectiveness of self - instructional packages on ‘Genetics’ through programmed
instructional packages (PIM) and computer instructional packages (CAIM) and to study
and compare the effectiveness of self- instructional methods and materials i.e. PIM and
CAIM as a reinforcement strategy on achievement and retention of cognitive skills in
‘Genetics’ such as knowledge, understanding and application among the students
selected for the study. It was found that both the reinforcement strategies are equally
effective in learning and retaining the same in the experimental groups.
Aggabao (2002) conducted a study aimed at developing individualized self-
instructional modules on selected topics in basic mathematics for instructional use at
the teachers college in Isabela State University. After making use of the experimental
method, it was concluded that the students as well as teachers have a positive attitude
towards the use of self-instructional materials as a mode of instructions in basic
mathematics.
Ali (2005) conducted a study to check the development and effectiveness of
Modular teaching in biology at secondary level. The ultimate result of the study
indicated that modular approach was more effective instructional paradigm for biology
as compared to the traditional teaching.
John (2006) conducted a study on preparation and testing of learning modules in
environmental science at higher secondary level. The major findings of the study were
that:-
(i) The learning modules prepared on the environmental science areas are very
effective in enhancing environmental awareness among higher secondary school
students.
(ii) The retention capacity of the students who learnt with the help of learning
modules is higher than those who learnt in the conventional textbook oriented
method.
Riasat Ali (2010) conducted a study on the effectiveness of the Modular
Teaching in Biology at secondary Level. The major findings of the study were that:-
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(i) Modular teaching is more effective as teaching-learning process as compared to
traditional teaching method. Because in modular teaching the students are
provided the opportunities of learning at their own pace, according to their
ability level and needs.
(ii) It is a self-learning style in which immediate reinforcement is provided in the
form of feedback task, which motivate the student. Hence the modular approach
is considered to create interest among students as they are free to learn at their
own pace.
Abeer Rashed Alelaimat (2012) conducted a study on the effectiveness of the
Educational Modules Strategy on the Direct and Postponed study’s Achievement of VII
primary grade students in Science, in comparison with the Conventional Approach. The
study’s results revealed that students in the experimental group are superior over
students in the control group in both types of achievement. At the same time results
showed the lack of difference between the male and female students in direct and long-
term achievement test.
Sadia Sadiq (2014) conducted a study on effectiveness of Modular Approach I
teaching at University Level. The major findings of the study were that:-
(i) Modular Teaching is more effective in teaching-learning process as compared to
ordinary teaching methods.
(ii) Modular Approach helps to maximize the chances of student participation in
classroom in respect to fulfill the given task at the spot.
STUDIES CONDUCTED IN INDIA
Sansanwal (1978) developed an instructional strategy for teaching research
methodology at M.Ed. and M.Sc. (Home Science) level. Various components of this
strategy were PLM, library work, discussion, unit tests and discussion on unit tests. In
this study the effectiveness of each component was studied on the basis of reactions of
students involved in the experiment. Each component and the sequence in which these
were used in the instructional process were found to be effective. Since the objectives
of teaching the subject, differ from subject to subject, there is a need to evolve an
instructional strategy for teaching a subject at a particular level. The objective of this
study was to develop and study the effectiveness of instructional strategy in terms of (a)
achievement of students on criterion test (b) reactions of students towards each
component as well as the whole of Instructional strategy. This study was conducted on
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B.Ed. students admitted during 1978-79 in the Department of Education, University of
Indore. All the admitted students were divided into three groups, each consisted of 60
students. Of these two groups were selected randomly, designated as experimental and
control groups. Both groups included students from different disciplines like arts,
science, life science, home science etc. There were graduates and postgraduates in both
the groups. The medium of instructions was Hindi. For developing instructional
strategy an analysis of "Learning" a topic from Educational Psychology was carried
out. For this topic specific objectives were stated in behavioral terms. The conclusions
were:
i) The instructional strategy was found to be effective to the extent that 70% of
students got above 70% marks on criterion test.
ii) Individual component and instructional strategy as a whole was found to be
effective in terms of student’s reaction.
Shajahan (1980) designed and developed modules for teaching science in
standard VI and VII and studied the effectiveness of the modules as an instructional
method with respect to the conventional method. The findings of the investigation
revealed that modular way of learning was more effective than the conventional method
in the case of some modules while in the case of other modules, it was found as
effective as the conventional method. An overwhelming majority of students possessed
a favorable attitude towards modular instruction. The teacher's reactions to modular
approach of instruction were favorable.
Justus (1981) conducted a study on "Preparation and comparison of supervised
study module with textbook approach in the teaching of biology in schools of Kerala
state". The objectives of the study were
i) To determine the effectiveness of supervised study module in teaching biology.
ii) To compare the effectiveness of supervised study module over textbook approach
in the teaching of biology under the categories of objectives- knowledge,
understanding, application and skill.
The results of the study were :
i) Supervised study module is more effective than textbook approach in the teaching
of biology in high schools.
ii) Supervised study module is more effective than textbook approach in the teaching
of biology under the categories of objectives- knowledge, understanding,
application and skill.
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Mukhopadhyay (1981) studied on microteaching vs modular approach. The
objectives were:
i) To study the development of selected teaching competencies through
microteaching and modular approaches,
ii) To compare the effectiveness of microteaching and modular approaches in
developing selected teaching competencies.
It was hypothesized that there would be no significant difference in the
performance of the groups trained through microteaching and modular approaches. The
study was conducted on 24 teacher trainees. Random sampling was done. Post-factor
analysis was done to match the two groups. The self-learning modules, one each on
questioning and reinforcement, were developed and used as training material for one
group. The other group was trained through microteaching. At the end, both groups
appeared for a performance based post-test. The major findings of the investigation
were:
i) In questioning, ten from each group satisfied the criterion referenced test, whereas
on reinforcement, nine from microteaching group and seven from the modular
approach group satisfied the criterion reference test.
ii) Both the treatments were equally effective.
Gabriel and Pillai (1981) conducted a study which reports an attempt to
modularize learning at collegiate level in India. A difficult unit in Biology was
identified and modular learning material was developed, using local resources. The
feasibility of this approach over the traditional teaching approach in terms of learning
efficiency, learning time and mastery level is reported. The students who experienced
modular scheduling were found to be superior in understanding of concept and
retention of concept. Time taken by the modular group as a whole to gain 80 percent
mastery, as compared to the control group was found to be in the ratio 2:5. It was also
found that the students preferred individualized learning and more number of and
different types of multimedia approaches rather than the usual classroom lecture.
Dyer (1982) developed an art curriculum design using curriculum modules as a
means of improving instruction in urban schools. Using instructional modules as a
mechanism, this design attempted to provide more scientific guidelines for art
instruction. Three self-contained modules were designed and presented. The
respondents expressed satisfaction towards the new instruction.
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Hopper (1982) designed and developed modules for teaching certain units in
biology in standard XI. The effectiveness of three modular approaches of teaching viz.
self-learning, peer group learning and peer group learning with teacher intervention was
evaluated through an experiment adopting the rotation group design. The major
findings of the study were:
(i) All the three structured modular approaches of teaching were effective in terms of
mean gain. However, the self-learning approach was more effective than the other
two modular approaches.
(ii) The modular approach in teaching biology led to significant increase in the
academic motivation of the student.
(iii) There was no relationship between intelligence and mean gain in achievement
through modular instruction.
Sharma (1982) conducted a study on developing instructional materials in civics
at 10+2 level for pre-service and in-service teachers. The main findings of the
investigation were:
(i) 99 percent of student teachers obtained distinction marks after studying module
I whereas 85 percent of them reached distinction level after studying module II.
(ii) A majority of the student-teachers expressed favorable opinion about the
different aspects of the modules.
(iii) The mean achievement scores of experimental group differed significantly from
that of the control group.
Dhamija (1985) conducted a comparative study on the effectiveness of three
approaches of Instructions- conventional, radio-vision and modular approach on
achievement of students in social-studies. The major findings of the study were-
(i) The students achieved highest total, knowledge and comprehension achievement
scores and retention in geography when taught through radio-vision, in the civics
when taught through modular approach and in history when taught through
conventional approach.
(ii) Self-confidence among the students increased when they were taught through the
modular approach.
Anita (1989) conducted a study on “Preparation of modules for teaching the
topic ‘Analysis of Basic Data’ in basic mathematics for standard VIII”. The main
objectives of the study were
(i) To prepare a module for teaching the topic ‘Analysis of Basic Data’.
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(ii) To find out the effectiveness of modular approach in teaching mathematics and to
compare the effectiveness of modular approach with the traditional method of
teaching.
The findings showed that the modular approach is more effective than
traditional approach.
Santosh Kumar (1990) conducted an experimental study on the effectiveness of
teacher assisted modular approach in teaching physics in secondary schools of Kerala
state. The study intended to find out the effectiveness of modular approach in teaching
physics. The findings showed that the teacher assisted modular approach is more
effective than textbook approach for student’s achievement in teaching physics.
Madhu Mohan (1990) conducted a study on the effect of teacher assisted
modular approach in teaching chemistry in secondary schools of Kerala state. The
findings showed that the teacher assisted modular approach is more effective than
textbook approach for student’s achievement in teaching chemistry.
Arunachalam (1991) developed an instructional module in learning the history
by students of standard X. The major objectives were to develop the module and
comparison of effectiveness of module over traditional approach in history. 300 pupils
formed the sample for the study. Two groups were equated on their achievement
available. The experimental group learnt the topic using the module and the control
group in the conventional way. Achievement test was administered to both group and
the scores were compared. The results showed that the experimental group served high
in achievement test. As far as the total group is concerned, with the use of instructional
module definitely improved their learning of history. Same result is obtained when the
objectives knowledge, Comprehension, application and skill are tested. The study
revealed that instructional module is superior to the traditional approach for it
contributes to the attainment of knowledge, comprehension, application and skill.
Mollykutty (1991) studied the effectiveness of modular approach in teacher
education and requisites for implementation. The study revealed that modular approach
has not been introduced formally and structurally in any of the teacher education
institutions. And the UGC Curriculum Development Committee which was entrusted
with the task of the preparation of model curriculum for the postgraduate and under-
graduate courses in teacher education have advised the use of modular approach and
also presented the model curriculum as modules.
50
Hazeena (1995) conducted a study on the comparison of modular approach and
traditional textbook approach in teaching physics in standard IX. The major findings of
the study were:
(i) The modular approach was more effective than traditional textbook approach.
(ii) The modular approach and textbook approach seems equally good for developing
the objective knowledge.
iii) The modular approach is more effective than the traditional method in developing
the objective understanding.
Dutt (1998) conducted a research on effect of self-learning modules on
achievement of senior secondary students in relation to their sex and place of residence.
It was found that sex accounted for differential achievement in economics. Male
students got significantly higher mean post achievement test scores than female
students. Students belonging to both rural and urban places of residence achieved
almost identical mean post achievement scores.
Kohal (1999) conducted a research on the effectiveness of self-learning modules
on achievement in geography in relation to mastery and non-mastery teaching
strategies, intelligence and study habits. The objectives of the study were to develop
self-learning modules in geography as a subject at 10+1 level in arts stream and to
study the effectiveness of self-learning modules in geography in terms of achievement.
It was found that the students taught through mastery teaching strategies attained more
geographic concepts than the students taught through non-mastery teaching strategy.
So, mastery strategy proved more superior to non-mastery strategy in teaching
geographic concepts.
Binumon (2000) conducted a study entitled “Effectiveness of three approaches
in instruction – modular, lectures cum modular and conventional lecture in learning the
topic ‘Fisheries’ at plus two level”. The study concluded that modular approach is more
effective than the other two methods i.e. lecture cum modular and conventional lecture
method.
Rastogi (2003) developed self-instructional material on educational statistics for
B.Ed. students. In this experimental research, a comparison was seen between two
strategies as traditional classroom teaching and self-instructional material. The
statistical analysis revealed that a significant change in level of knowledge regarding
educational statistics was obtained in both the groups. Also, learning in both the groups
was enhanced to a significant level, and there was more retention through self-
51
instructional material strategy. This indicated that self- instructional material strategy
was more effective than traditional classroom teaching strategy.
Shetty (2004) conducted a research on the development of a self-instructional
module on staff development for the secondary school principals. The objectives of
study were :
i) To develop instructional material on self-development for secondary school
principals.
iv) To try out the instructional material developed for secondary school principals on
staff development.
v) To evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional material on staff development
for secondary school principals.
It was found that the modules helped the principals to enhance their abilities of
organizational management. These helped the principals to have better and effective
communication, wherever required technology was used. They were active listeners,
effective negotiators and were able to conduct meetings effectively after learning the
various techniques of communication from the modules.
Arora & Singh (2005) conducted research on development and evaluation of
self-learning modules to enhance the learning of students at CMC Ludhiana. The results
(post-test average of 84%) indicated that self-learning modules were an effective
method of studying and reinforcing learning. Comparison with other teaching methods
indicated that the students would prefer self-learning modules as an additional method
of learning but not a replacement for lectures and text-books. Students recommended
that SLM experiment should continue and suggested an SLM library for self-study.
Puri (2009) conducted a study on effect of self-learning modules on
environmental awareness in elementary school students belonging to different socio-
economic status and school systems. It was found that self-learning modules proved
effective when compared to conventional teaching in private, gurukuls and govt.
schools.
Kamini Gupta (2014) conducted a study entitled “Effectiveness of self-learning
modules on Environmental Education on level of awareness of perspective Teachers”.
Findings of the study revealed that the self-instructional module was sufficiently
effective and has significant effect on the awareness level of perspective Teachers.
Kanchan (2014) conducted a study entitled “Effectiveness of self-learning
modules on the achievement and retention of undergraduate students in commerce”.
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Findings of the study revealed that the students exposed to self-learning modules
achieved higher in the specified units of Business Management than those exposed to
conventional mode of teaching and retained higher in the specified units of Business
Management than those exposed to conventional mode of teaching.
After going through the studies mentioned in preceding pages, it seems that
studies related to development and evaluation of instructional modules were conducted
at elementary level, secondary level and even college level too. The trend of the
researches conducted in India as well as Abroad reveals that most of the studies are of
experiment type and comparison of effectiveness of module with traditional method in
the area of teacher training courses, special education for teachers as well as parents,
nursing course and different school subjects. It is also clear from the review of related
literature that majority of the studies were related to subject like science and social-
science and very few were related to mathematics.
2.3 STUDIES RELATED WITH DIAGNOSIS AND
REMEDIATION
In this section, an attempt has been made to review the studies related to
diagnosis of difficulties faced by the students in different school subjects and their
remediation in Indian school context.
Rastogi (1983) conducted the study of diagnosis of weaknesses in the basic
arithmetic skills and their remedial measures. The main objectives of the study were-
i) To establish a relationship between achievements in mathematics and command
over basic skills.
ii) To establish a relationship between achievements in mathematics and attitude
towards mathematics.
iii) To establish a relationship between general intelligence and the three attitudes
viz. command over basic skills achievements in mathematics and attitude towards
mathematics.
iv) To develop a diagnostic test to determine specific weakness of students backward
in basic arithmetic skills.
v) To develop a suitable program for remedial work in basic arithmetic skills.
vi) To investigate other causes of backwardness in mathematics and their treatment.
The design of study was essentially experimental in nature. A test of basic
skills in arithmetic and attitude towards mathematics was constructed and standardized.
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A diagnostic test of basic arithmetic skills was also constructed. Apart from these tools,
Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices, a mathematics achievement survey test made
by NCERT and a course of self- help in basic arithmetic skills which was a program of
remedial work developed to use as a treatment for the study were used. The major
findings were-
i) One of the important causes of backwardness in mathematics was the poor
command over basic arithmetic skills. Attitudes were closely linked with
achievement.
ii) When command over basic arithmetic skills improved, attitude towards
mathematics and achievement in mathematics increased.
iii) Basic arithmetic skills could very quickly and conveniently be mastered through
the course of self-help in basic arithmetic skills as developed during the study.
iv) There were no significant sex differences found either attitude towards
mathematics or achievement in mathematics.
v) The course of self- help in basic arithmetic skills was equally effective with either
sex.
Gosh (1984) conducted a study on the scholastic backwardness in the basic
operations of arithmetic - Diagnosis and Prevention.
The objectives of the study were-
i) To diagnose children’s disability in specific areas of addition and subtraction in
arithmetic with the help of specially developed diagnosis tools.
ii) To suggest preventive measures for renaming the expected learning disability in
those areas.
The sample consisted of 200 students of II of 6 primary schools.
An individual structured interview was conducted with 20% students selected at
random from the sample to validate the tools. Experimental groups treated by piagetian
methods of instruction and controlled groups were taught conventionally.
Conclusions of the study were-
The experimental group should significantly show better achievements than the
controlled groups when both groups were evaluated 15 days after the experiments.
i) The experimental groups taught by the Piagetian methods achieved more than the
controlled groups.
ii) The experimental groups showed greater motivation in learning.
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Dutta (1996) conducted a study in learning disabilities in the reasoning power of
the students in geometry – Diagnosis and Prevention.
The main objectives of the study were
i) To diagnose the major pattern of disabilities in a specific area of geometry with
the help of tools specially developed for the purpose.
ii) To try out experimentally teaching methods which would prevent development of
learning disabilities in the area under study?
The major findings were :
i) Thirty three major patterns of disabilities were identified.
ii) The experimental group taught by audio visual aids and techniques achieved
significantly more than the controlled group taught by conventional methods.
Thakur (1999) conducted a study on the construction of diagnostic test and
preparation of remedial material as well as testing its effectiveness on fractions and
decimal fractions for the students of grade V of Gujrati medium schools in great
Bombay. The major aim was construction of diagnostic test followed by preparation of
remedial material and testing its effectiveness. The test and follow-up remedial material
were prepared for students of class V who did not have clear concept of fractions. It
was difficult for them to convert one type of fraction into another. Simplification was
found to be a difficult process for them. They could not easily find out the smallest and
biggest fraction and many simple principles like; zero multiplied by zero is zero,
divisions are inverses of multiplication. As for decimal fractions, the students did not
understand the place values of the figures in decimal fractions. They did not understand
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of decimal fractions.
Sudha (2000) conducted a study on the specific errors committed by primary
class students in learning mathematics and their remedies.
The major aims of study were
i) To find out the errors committed by the students in translating verbal statements
(a) into mathematical form using appropriate symbols (b) and diagrammatically.
ii) To find out the problems of the students in applying mathematical concept .i.e. to
prepare bills, find simple interest, percentage, drawing geometrical figures and
their areas and perimeter.
iii) To find out their skills to solve simple problems of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, L.C.M. and H.C.F.
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iv) To suggest probable modulations to overcome the difficulties faced by the
students in learning addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, simple interest,
percentage, drawing geometrical figures and their areas and perimeter.
The study revealed that
i) There was significant difference in the performance of boys and girls in math, the
difference being in favor of boys.
ii) The urban pupils were superior to rural pupils in math.
iii) Intelligence and interest in math were higher in boys and urban pupils than in
their respective counterparts.
Raj Kumar (2003) conducted a study on the specific errors committed by IX
class students in learning mathematics and their remedies.
The main objectives of the study were
(i) To study the errors committed by both the private and government school
students in math.
(ii) To study the errors committed by the girl students of both private and government
schools in math.
(iii) To study the errors committed by the boy students of both the private and
government schools in math.
The study revealed that
(i) There is no significant difference between errors of both the private and
government school students in math.
(ii) There is no significant difference between errors of both the private and
government school girl students in math.
(iii) There is no significant difference between errors of both the private and
government school boy students in math.
Vikrant Mishra (2008) conducted a study on errors committed in English by IX
class students and evaluation of the effectiveness of remedial measures. The main
objectives were
i) To find out different types of percentage of errors in written English committed
by IX class students.
ii) To find out the incidence of errors of difference by IX class students.
iii) To develop for IX class students a remedial package to remove errors in written
English.
iv) To find out experimentally the effectiveness of the remedial package.
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The study revealed that
i) Of all the nine JNV’s under sample, the students of JNV Niwarsi and JNV
Kaulan have committed ‘High incidence of errors’ while the remaining students
of 7 JNV have committed ‘low incidence of errors’.
ii) The results of t-ratios between the experimental group and the control group on
pre-test have shown ‘no difference’ on errors. Since no treatment was given to the
experimental group.
iii) The results of t-ratios between the experimental group and the control group on
post-test have shown difference in the positive direction i.e. the students of
experimental group have shown less errors on post-test than the students of
control group. This happened because the experimental group was given
treatment in the form of remedial teaching which proved to be effective.
Satish Kumar (2012) conducted a study which was intended to diagnostic
testing and remediation in reading and writing components in English with the help of
self – instructional–materials at upper elementary level. For the purposes, a sample of
310 students, learning in grade VII in self – financing and govt. schools of district
Sonipat (Rohtak Division) of Haryana was randomly selected. Diagnostic test and self -
instructional material (SIM) made by the investigator himself and for assessment of
personality and intelligence of the students, M.P.I. by S. Jalota and S.D. Kapoor and
Samuhik Mansik Yogayata Priksha by R.S. Tandon were used to collect the data.
The major findings of the study were :
i) The diagnostic test prepared is developed effectively.
ii) The self – instructional material has been found to have a significant positive
impact on the students on the basis of comparison between scores of experimental
and control group on the post-test and also on pre-test and also on pre-test and
post-test experimental group comparisons.
iii) On the basis of comparison of scores of experimental group on pre-test and post-
test, it was revealed that self- instructional material has been found to have a
significant positive impact on the components ‘passage’, ‘poem’, ‘word’,
grammar’, vocabulary’, ‘composition’, ‘comprehension’.
iv) The pre-test and post-test differences in the scores of control group on the
diagnostic test were found to be insignificant. It shows that in the present study
intervening variable does not affect much the achievements of the children.
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The trend of the researches conducted in India reveals that most of the studies
related to diagnosis of difficulties in various school subjects and their remediation were
conducted in English and Mathematics but the studies related to mathematics were
conducted at primary level only.
2.4 IMPLICATION OF THIS REVIEW ON THE PRESENT
STUDY
The review of related literature empowered the investigator to have extensive
information on the history of researches conducted in the field of diagnosing student’s
difficulties in various subjects and effectiveness of modular instructional strategy for
their remediation.
Most of the researches quoted for diagnosis of difficulties faced by students
have been conducted in almost all school subjects such as Hindi, English, Chemistry,
Biology etc. but a very few studies were conducted in mathematics. Moreover they
were also conducted at primary level. There is a scarcity of researches in mathematics.
It is a necessity to conduct research in this field and implement it is in order to
eliminate or at least reduce the learning difficulties in mathematics found in secondary
school students. The analysis of studies related to diagnostic testing revealed that
diagnostic testing in teaching can be used, as a technique for finding out the frequency
and types of errors committed by students, for the correction and elimination of
individual weaknesses, as a tool for finding out the reason for committing errors.
Keeping in view the seriousness of this problem of prevailing learning difficulties in
secondary school students, an attempt has been made by the investigator to identify the
difficulties faced by secondary school students in mathematics.
It is also clear from the review of related literature that studies related to
development and evaluation of instructional modules as teaching method were
conducted at elementary level, secondary level and even college level too for the
subject like science, social science, languages, mathematics etc.
The review further reflects that the evidence regarding studies conducted
particularly in Indian context on the diagnosis of difficulties of students and their
remediation through modular instructional strategy in mathematics is scare. This was
the most important point why investigator had selected this topic for the purpose of the
research. Therefore, the present study was taken up to diagnose the difficulties faced by
student in mathematics and their remediation through modular instructional strategy at
secondary school level in the state of Haryana.