CHAPTER- II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

CHapterZ ^(eview o f L iterature

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Darwin (1881) called earthworms as ‘Nature’s Plough’. Earthworms were used as

a living plough as they were regarded as safe, cheap and tireless farm hands. Darwin also

stated that earthworms were beneficial soil annelids that played vital role in nature by

improving the condition o f soil.

De Vlee Schauwer and Lai (1981) reported that vermicasts had lower pH, about

2-6 times more organic matter content, 2-4 times more nitrogen, 2-8 times more Bray’s P

and 2-6 times more CEC(cation exchange capacity) than the parent soil. Mensell et al.,

(1981) stated that earth worms increase the available phosphorus derived from plant litter

by 2-3 folds. This is attributed to greater phosphates activity in earthworms as reported

bySatchell et a/., (1984).

Mulongoy and Bedoret (1988) reported that vermicasts had higher pH values,

higher mineral element concentration and more water stable aggregates than the

corresponding soils. Vermicasts contained more nitrifies higher enzymes activities and

higher amount o f stress labile nitrogen as compared to corresponding top soil.

Vadiraj et a l , (1992) studied the effect o f vermicompost on cardamum seedling.

He used different organic materials for vermicomposting and observed that

vermicompost prepared from different organic sources contained more o f major and

minor nutrient as compared to normal compost.

19

CfiapterZ ^ = = <Hfidew o f L iterature

Giraddi (1993) stated that vermicompost contained 0.8% of N, 1.1% P2O5 and

0.5% K2O, which were two or five times higher, respectively compared to that o f FYM.

Venkatesh (1995) found that application o f vermicompost with organic fertilizers

decreased the pH o f soil and increased the organic carbon and available N, P, K and

DTPA extractable Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu contents o f soil. Purakayastha and Bhatnagar (1997)

reported that vermicompost had considerable amount o f nutrient, viz., 1.60, 2 .2 0 , 1.06,

0.44 and 0.15% of N, P, Ca and Mg respectively.

Indira et al., (1996) are o f the opinion that the population o f beneficial organisms

like phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB), N fixing organisms and entamophagous fungi

were quite high in vermicompost. Similarly considerable population o f coliform bacteria

was also noticed in vermicompost.

Rajkhowa et al., (2000) reported that vermicompost had 11.5% organic carbon,

1.3% total nitrogen, 1.3 % phosphorus and 2.6% potassium. According to Srikanth et al.

(2000) in addition to 15.2% organic carbon, vermicompost contained N (1.4%),

P (0.36%) and K (0.60%), Fe (522mg kg‘) and Zn (54 mg kg').

Vermicompost possessed nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, carbon and C: N to an

extent o f 2.13%, 0.93%, 0.44%, 56.8% and 26.6%, respectively (Manjappa and

Prabhakar, 2001). The organic manures produced by earthworms had plant growth

promoting substances, humus forming microbes and nitrogen fixers (Bano et al., 1987).

Nutrient composition o f vermicompost was 1.34% of nitrogen, 1.12% of phosphorus,

1.06% o f potassium, 13.38% of C; N ratio (Rani and Srivastava, 2001).

20

C fiapterZ 'iReview o f L iterature

Sankhyan et al., (2001) reported the increase in soil moisture due to mulching and

significant increase productivity o f maize due to application o f FYM. Kumaran (2001)

reported that the application o f FYM and fertilizer produced higher number o f pods per

plant, pod weight per plant, number o f kernels per pod, test weight, pod yield and hauhn

yield o f groundnut.

Das et al., (2002) indicated an increase in plant height due to the application o f

vermicompost in green gram. Application o f FYM @ 10 t per ha along with phosphorus

resulted in higher plant height in French bean (Purushottam et al., 2002). Yadav and

Vijayakumari (2003) found better yield in vermicompost treatment. Same observation

was also reported by Rameshwar (2006).

Vermicompost is a potential source o f nutrient due to the presence o f readily

available plant nutrients, growth enhancing substances and number o f beneficial

microorganisms like N fixing, P solubilizing and cellulose decomposing organisms.

About 106 bacteria, 105 fungi and 105 actinomycetes were reported to be present in

vermicompost (Sudha and Chandini, 2003).

Siag and Yadav (2004) observed that the application o f vermicompost up to 2 ton

per ha increased pods per plant and seed index in green gram. Vermicompost contains

micro site rich in available carbon and nitrogen (Sudhakar et al., 2002).

Govindan and Thirumurugan (2005) observed that the application of

vermicompost (75%) had significantly recorded higher plant height (84.70 cm), leaf area

index (3.40) over press mud (100% N) (9 78.20 cm and 2.70 respectively) in Soya bean.

21

C fiapter2 ■■ <S^view o f L iterature

The highest grain and straw yields were recorded with the appHcation o f 60 kg N

ha'' plus Azolla. The combined application o f fertilizer N, vermicompost and Azolla

sustained the productivity even at lower rate o f N fertilizer application (Singh et al.,

2005).

Chandrashakar Reddy and Malla Reddy (2005) recorded increase in plant height

(15.33 cm), number o f leaves (14.06 per plant), with the application o f vermicompost

@ 30 t ha'* compared to application o f vermicompost @ 10 t ha'* (40.95 cm and 12.58,

respectively) in onion.

Barik et a l , (2006) stated that the application o f 50 per cent RFR in combination

with vermicompost at 1 0 t ha'* significantly improved the growth and yield attributes of

rice compared with the application o f 100 percent RFR and o f different combinations of

farm yard manure and mineral fertilizers. Veerabhadraiah et al., (2006) showed improved

soil properties due to the application o f either P fM or compost or vermicompost.

Vermicompost can be used as a valuable resource for renewable energy

production, as well as sources o f nutrient for agriculture, as they provide high content of

macro-micronutrients for crop growth and represent a low cost ahemative to mineral

fertilizer (Moral et al., 2009).

Composting and vermicomposting are two o f the best known processes for the

biological stabilization o f a great variety o f organic waste (Dominguez and Edward et al.,

2010).

22

C fiapter2 ■ ■ ' 'Review o f L iterature

The extract from vermicompost is known as vermicompost extract

Pant et al., (2009) and the leachate is generated along with vermicomposting processes

commonly referred as vermicomoposting leachate or worm bed leachate (Gutierrez-

Miceli e /a /., 2011).

Vermicompost is an eco-friendly, cost effective and ecologically soxmd bio­

fertilizer. Use o f vermicompost is effective for improving soil aggregation, structure,

aeration and fertility; contains most o f the nutrients in plant-available form such as

nitrates, phosphates, exchangeable calcium and soluble potassium increases beneficial

microbial population diversity and activity; improves soil moisture-holding capacity;

contains vitamins, enzymes and hormones; and accelerates the population and activity o f

earthworms (Aggelides and Londra, 1999; Mascolo et al., 1999; Albiach et al., 2000;

Marinari et al., 2000; Sailajakumari and Ushakumari, 2002; Arancon et al., 2006; Prabha

et al., 2007; Azarmi et a l , 2008).

Vermicompost has a significant positive influence on seed germination and

seedling vigor, plant growth, flowering, fruiting, tuberization, root development, colour,

shelf-life and quality o f vegetables (Atiyeh et al., 2001; Suthar et a l , 2005; Arguello

et al., 2006; Alam et al., 2007; Ansari, 2008; Gupta et al., 2008; Peyvast et al., 2008;

Premsekhar and Rajashree, 2009; Suthar, 2009; Chanda et al., 2011).

Das and Dkhar, (2011) reported that the use o f vermicompost improved soil

physic- chemical and biological properties leading to better plant stand.

23

chapter 2 (Review o f Literature

Quaik et a i , (2012) reported that the diluted vermicomposting leachate when used

as a nutrient solution for Plectranthus ambinoicus, chlorophyll and carotenoids content

were higher compared to control.

Farm Yard Manure

Patnaik et a i , (1989) observed significant changes in soil aggregation status due

to application o f farm yard manure alone or in combination with fertilizer. These

treatments increased the percent o f water stable aggregates that were measuring 0.25 mm

and above.

Incorporation o f farm yard manure did not affect bulk density o f the soil but

increased the water stable aggregates to more than 2.0 mm in size (Kumar et ah, 1992).

Jain et al. (1995) reported the application o f FYM (5t/ha) significantly enhanced

the plant height (55.83cm), number o f leaves per plant (15.00), number o f branches per

plant (4.33) over control (52.17 cm, 13.33, and 3.33kgha'* respectively) in soyabean.

Baluswamy et al. (1996) found that the application o f FYM (lOt/ha) along with

zinc (10 kg/h) increased plant height than the application o f FYM alone in soya bean.

Whereas, in cow bean, plant height, number o f branches were higher in the treatment

which received bio fertilizer along with potassiimi source (Rajurka et a l , 1999).

Udayasoorian et al., (1997) conducted an experiment in Coimbatore, on clay loam

soil. They reported that application o f recommended dose o f nitrogen (RDF) @ 150 kg

ha"' along with 5 t/ha o f farm yard manure during the rainy season, had the highest

fertility build up, as reflected by the increase in organic carbon (0.516 to 0.629 %)

24 ^

chapter 2 ■■■-■ (Review o f Literature

available nitrogen (118 to 130 kg ha"'), available phosphorus (36.5 to 42.7 kg ha'^) and

available potassium (217 to 264 kg ha"') compared to application o f only RDF.

Application o f farm yard manure and recommended dose o f fertilizer results in the

highest uptake o f Ca, Mg, N and K by upland rice (Roy et al., 1997).

Patel et al., (1998) found that bio fertilizer in combination with chemical

fertilizers increased nimiber o f pods per plant, grains per pods and pod yield in garden

pea. Srivastava et a l, (1998) showed that the application o f bio fertilizers along with

phosphorus and molybdenum gave higher yield in pea. Inoculation o f composite culture

and single culture o f bio fertilizers recorded highest grain yield in pea (Tyagi et al.,

2003). Seed treatment with bio fertilizer significantly influenced grain in chickpea

(Lokesh and Singh, 2003).

Application o f FYM along with RDF significantly brought down the bulk density

(1.32 gm cm^) compared to fertilizer treatment (1.0 g cm^) alone. Combined application

o f FYM and recommended level o f NPK recorded highest water retention at both the

field capacity (32.33%) and wilting point (6 .8 6 % ) and higher root length and dry matter

compared to fertilizer treatments alone (Singh et al., 2000). Anand Swamp and Yadu

Vanshi (2000) reported that soil organic carbon available P, K, Zn and Mn were

significantly lower in inorganic fertilizer treatments compared to organic fertilizer

treatment such as farm yard manure and green manure.

Babu and Reddy (2000) found that application o f farm yard manure @ 10 t ha'*

leads to a greater accumulation o f available N, P and K in soil than fertilizer treatment

25

CHapter2 (Review o f Literature

alone. Application o f multi- micronutrient mixture had beneficial effect on the yield

cluster bean (Kuldeep Singh and Hans Raj, 2001).

Muneshwar Singh et al„ (2001) reported that the nutrient content o f the farm yard

manure was 0.62% o f nitrogen, 0.13% of phosphorus, 0.7 % o f potassium. Further, Singh

and Chauhan (2002) stated that farm yard manure possessed 22.5% organic carbon plus

1.73%, 0.28% and 1.02% nitrogen, phosphorus as well as potassium, respectively.

Ghosh et al., (2001) reported that the application o f FYM @ 10 t ha"' along with

recommended dose o f NPK to Soya bean recorded significantly higher seed yield ( 2.665t

ha'*) compared to NPK alone (1.45 t ha’').

Application o f FYM at 10 t per ha along with phosphorus resulted in higher

French bean (Purushtoom et al., 2002). Similarly Ramgopal et al., (2003) also reported

that addition o f FYM with irrigation and nitrogen resulted in higher values o f plant height

and number o f branches in French bean.

Sharma et al., (2002) showed that the application o f FYM significantly improved

various growth parameters in soya bean whereas Jamwal et al. (1989) found that leaf area

index, net assimilation rate, crop growth rate and leaf area duration improved due to the

application o f bio fertilizers in black gram.

Satishkumar et al., (2003) found that vermicompost application (2.5 and 5 t/ha)

resulted in higher yield compared to FYM (5t/ha) in mung bean. However, Sharma and

Misra (1997) confirmed higher yield in soya bean due to application o f FYM along with

other nutrient.

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chapter 2 (Review o f Literature

Investigation carried out by Selvi et a i , (2005) in the ongoing long term

fertilization experiment laid out in 1972 on vertic haplusteps soil revealed that combined

application o f NPK and farm yard manure results in lower bulk density (1.3 g cm^),

higher hydraulic conductivity ( 2.61 cm hr’*) and higher porosity percentage (58.9%)

compared to fertilizer treatment alone.

Deshmukh et a l , (2005) reported that the beneficial effect o f FYM in conjunction

with RDF may be due to the effect o f organic matter in improving physical, chemical and

biological environment o f soil conductive to better plant growth.

Vinay Singh (2006) reported that the application o f FYM @ 10 t ha ’ recorded

significantly higher seed yield (26.85q ha’') o f wheat compared to control (22.72 q ha’’).

Veerabhadraiah et al., (2006) showed improved soil properties due to the application of

either FYM or compost or vermicompost.

Suryawanshi et a i , (2006) shows that increasing in various plant growth

characters such as plant height, leaf area and total dry matter uhimately results into

increase in seed yield. This might be the reasons responsible for spectacular increase in

overall seed yield in Soya bean.

Hatch et a i , (2007) reported that incorporation o f farm yard manure to the soil

had beneficial effects o f increasing biological fixation, dry matter and N yields in red

clover.

Earlier Javaid et al., (2008) reported better growth and yield o f wheat in farm yard

manure than in green manure amended soil. It could be attributed to different

27

CfiapterZ ^ = = = = = ^ ^ = = = ^ ^ J^view o f Literature

mineralization rates and nutrient availability in the two soil amendment systems at

different growth stages of the plants (Kautz et al., 2006). Animal manure is a valuable

source o f nutrient and the yield increasing effect o f manure is well established (Leonard,

1986; Wakene et al., 2005; Siliva et al., 2006).

The application o f EM (Effective Microorganisms) in farmyard manure is known

to enhance crop growth and yield in many crops both leguminous and non-leguminous

(Sheng and Lian, 2002; Javaid, 2006, 2009; Khaliq et al., 2006; Daiss et a l, 2008).

Application o f animal manure to agriculture field is a widely used method o f

increasing soil organic matter and fertility (Debelle et al., 2001; Wakene et a l, 2005;

Heluf e/ a l, 1999; Khaliq et a l, 2009).

Animal manure contains small varying amounts o f plants nutrients, especially

nitrogen and potassium which are slowly released in to the soil for plant uptake (Gachene

and Gathiru, 2003; Achieng et al., 2010).

Application o f FYM and inorganic fertilizer N and P significantly increases grain

yield o f hybrid maize cultivars and improves some soil chemical and physical properties

such as available P, cation exchange capacity (CEC), total nitrogen, the texture, structure

and water holding capacity o f the soil (Debelle et a l , 2001; Wakene et al., 2005; Shah

et a l , 2009; Tesdale et a l , 1993; Helufe et a l , 1999; Asfwet et al., 1998; Achieng et a l,

2010). Animal manure is a good source o f plant nutrient and has a positive effect on

improvement o f the soil physical structure (Siliva et al., 2006; Zelalem, 2012).

28

Chapter 2 <Review o f Literature

Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria

Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) are used as a bio fertilizer since 1950’s

Kudeshev (1956). In some soils the ability has been found to be present in as high as 85%

of the total population (Hayman, 1975).

Solubilizing o f phosphorus by these phosphates solubilizing microorganisms is

attributed to the excretion o f organic acids like glutamic, succinic, lactic, oxalic,

glyoxalic, maleic, fumaric, tartaric and formic acids. Some o f these acids (hydroxy acids)

may form chelation with cations such as Ca^^ and Fe^^, which results in effective

solubilization o f phosphates (Subbarao et a l , 1986).

Many soil microorganisms have the capacity to solubilise insoluble inorganic

phosphates. These insoluble phosphates include bone meal, rock phosphates, tricalcium

phosphates, hydroxyl apatite, fluorapatite, aluminium phosphate, iron and phosphate

(Kapoor et al., 1989).

The phosphate solubilizing microorganisms solubilize the insoluble phosphate

mainly by production o f organic acids like acetic, lactic, formic and gluconic acid etc.

(Rekha et al., 1991). The application o f phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) with

phosphorus fertilizers results maximum grain yield in urd bean (Tomar et al., 1994).

Patel et al., (1998) found that the application o f phosphate solubilizing

microorganisms along with rhizobium increased the plant height and number o f branches

in garden pea.

29

CdapterZ Review o f Literature

The grain yield in black gram was found to be higher due to the application o f

phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) along with FYM and NPK (Tomar, 1998).

hicrease in grain yield o f pigeon pea and other legumes due to the rhizobium and

phosphate solubilizing bacteria inoculation was noticed by Namdeo and Guptha (1999).

Tanwar and Shaktanol, (2002) found incorporation o f FYM at 10 t per ha with

and P-solubilizer significantly improved the yield in soya bean. Olivera et a i , (2002)

declared that the effect o f combined inoculation o f bean by PSB and Rhizobium bacteria

were positive on dry weight.

Singh and Pareek (2003) opined that inoculation o f bio fertilizer (PSB+

Rhizobium) resulted in higher yield in mung bean. Similar results were also reported by

Kalipada and Singh (2003) in chickpea. Similarly the inoculation with phosphate

solubilizing microorganisms increased the grain yield in mung bean (Bharat Singh et al.,

2003).

Seed inoculation with PSB in cluster bean significantly increased the entire yield

components and seed yield (Khemchand and Meena, 2004). Similarly, Rajpal et al.,

(2003) concluded that combined inoculation o f Rhizobium and PSB significantly

increased the pods per plant, seeds per pods, pod length, test weight in cluster bean.

Phosphate solubilizing bacteria are also known to increase phosphorus uptake

resulting in better growth and higher yield o f crop plants (Alagawadi and Gaur, 1988;

Rudresh et al., 2005).

30

chapter 2 <Review o f Literature

Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms secretes different types o f organic acids,

e.g. carboxylic acid, reduce the pH in the rhizosphere and consequently dissociate the

bound forms o f phosphates like Ca^ (P04)^ in calcareous soils (Deuble and Merbach,

2005).

Jat and Ahlawat (2006) by using o f phosphate solubilizing bacteria and one strain

o f rhizobial bacteria on the pea plant stated that biological yield, grains yield and grain

protein level significantly increased compared with control treatment.

Rosas et a i , (2006) reported that Phosphate solubilizing P. putida can influence

the rhizobia - legume symbiosis and increased the number and dry weight o f nodules in

alfalfa and soya bean.

Kuntal et a i , (2007) during the research on medicinal plant, Stevia rebaudiana

Bert, showed that application o f PSB improved biological function and absorption o f

nutrient elements in this plant.

Not only providing phosphorus to the plants, the phosphate solubilizing

microorganisms also facilitate the growth o f plants by stimulating the efficiency o f

nitrogen fixation, accelerating the accessibility o f other trace elements and by

synthesizing important growth promoting substances (Mittal et a i , 2008), including

siderophores (Wani et al., 2007) and antibiotics (Lipping et al., 2008), and providing

protection to plants against soil borne pathogens (Hamdali et al., 2008).

31

CHapter2 = ^ = Review o f Literature

Shaharoona et al., (2007) also reported that PSB would increase wheat yield. The

application o f both PSB and plant growth promoter bacteria (PGPR) increase P uptake

efficiency by 50% (Yazdani and Bahmanyar, 2009).

When phosphatic fertilizers are applied to the soil, they often become insoluble

(more than 70%) and are converted into complexes such as calcium phosphate, aluminum

phosphate and iron phosphate in the soil (Mittal et al., 2008).

Phosphates solubilizing microorganisms (PSM) play a significant role in making

phosphorus available to plants by bringing about favorable changes in soil reaction in the

soil micro environment leading to solubilization o f organic phosphate sources (Preeti

Mehta and Anjali Chauhan, 2010).

For optimum plant growth, nutrients must be balanced and should be sufficient

for plants, or in other words the soil must have nutrients that are needed for plants

(Ayoola, 2 0 1 0 ).

As revealed by several investigators, phosphate solubilizng bacteria could

increase growth and yield in several crops including walnut (Xuan et al., 2008), soybean

(Fernandez et al., 2007), apple (Aslantas et al., 2007), maize (Hameeda et al., 2008),

sugar beet (Sahin et al., 2004), chick pea (Akhtar and Siddiqui, 2009) and peanut

(Taurian et al., 2010).

Phosphorus, the second most important macro nutrient required by the plants,

next to nitrogen, is reported to be a critical factor o f many crop production systems, due

to the fact that the limited availability in soluble forms in soil (Xiao et al., 2011).

32

Cfiapter2 (Review o f Literature =

However, utilization o f phosphate solubilizing microorganisms is found to be limited,

lack o f knowledge among practitioners being the key reason (Prasanna et al., 2011).

Rhizobium

Kunda and Gaur (1980) observed an increase in the production o f groundnut

using Rhizobium sp. and phosphor bacteria as bio inoculants. Combined inoculation o f

Rhizobium and phosphobacteria enhance the yield in soya bean.

Tirado et al., (1990) indicated that the application o f N in soya bean stimulate the

growth o f vegetative parts, whereas fixation o f atmospheric N increases root growth

when combined, a greater increase in yield and nutritional quality o f snap bean can be

achieved. Legume plants have established a symbiotic relationship with rhizobial bacteria

through which they can fix aerial nitrogen and cover their nitrogen needs (Gan and

people, 1997).

Patel et al., (1998) found that the application o f Rhizobium along with phosphate

solubilizing bacteria increased plant height and number o f branches in garden pea.

Increase in grain yield o f pigeon pea and other legume due to Rhizobium and

phosphate solubilizing microorganism inoculation was noticed by (Namdeo and Gupta

1999).

Singer et a l, (2000) found that when Rhizobium + 90 kg o f N were applied, snap

bean had greater plant height, number o f leaves and branches, fresh weight and dry

weight o f the biomass. With the combination o f Rhizobium+ 23 kg N, (Daba and Haile

2000) found that yield o f the bean grain increased by 3 tons /ha.

33

CHapter2 = = ^ = <Rgview o f Literature

The seed size and seed weight o f soya bean increased when plants were

inoculated with Brady rhizobium japonicum bacteria at seed filling stage due to a more

efficient photosynthetic activity level and higher transport o f photo-assimilates to grains

(Rahmani et al., 2000).

Roses et al. (2002) reported that combined inoculation of soya bean with

symbiotic bacteria o f soya bean and phosphate solubilizing bacteria improved dry weight

o f soya bean, where as in pea plants it resulted in higher shoot length , root length and dry

weight (Dileep Kumar et al., 2001).

Rhizobivim inhibits growth o f foot and root rot causal pathogens and increases

yield o f leguminous and non-leguminous crops (Khan et al.,. 1998; Hossain et al., 2000;

Hossain and Mohammed, 2002; Kibria and Hossain, 2002).

Singh and Pareek (2003) reported that inoculation o f Bio fertilizer (Rhizobium

+PSB) results in higher yield in mung bean. Similar results were also reported by

(Kalipada and Singh 2003) in chickpea.

Rajpal et al., (2003) reported that the combined inoculation o f Rhizobium and

FSB significantly increased pods per plants, seeds per pods, pod length in cluster bean.

Irizar et al., (2003) observed that in “Flor de Mayo” bean application o f

Rhizobum etli + Glomus intraradices resulted in the highest grain yield (830 kg /ha)

whereas the lowest yield (650 kg /ha) was in control.

The use o f Rhizobium inoculums in the established o f legumes has been widely

recognized. Rhizobial inoculation to seeds is well studied and exploitation o f this

34

chapter 2 ...............- - ------------------- Review o f Literature

beneficial nitrogen fixing root nodules symbiosis represents a hall mark o f successfiil

applied agricultural microbiology (Bruno et al., 2003).

Biological nitrogen fixation plays an essential role in crops establishment and

yield since no N nitrogen fertilizer is applied and it fulfils most o f plants need for

nitrogen (Vargas and Hungrai, 1997; Chen et al., 2002).

Kazemi et al., (2005) stated that soya bean seeds inoculation o f rhizobial bacteria

significantly increased the number o f pods per plants, number o f seeds per plant,

thousand grains weight and finally the yield o f the soya bean.

The combined inoculation o f Rhizobium and phosphate solubilizing bacteria has

increased nodulation, growth and yield parameters in chickpea (Alagawadi and Gaur,

1988; Jain et al., 1999; Sattar and Gaur, 1987; Rudresh et al., 2005).

Tomar and Jai (2006) studied the effect o f nutrient management practices on yield

and quality o f soybean during 2 kharif season 2000 and 2001 in Madhya Pradesh, India.

The treatments included; P at 60 and 80 kg/ha; farmyard manure (FYM) at 0, 5 and 10

t/ha; and bio fertilizers Rhizobium, phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and Rhizobium

+ PSB. The maximum nimiber o f pods/plant, number o f seeds/pods, 100-seed weight,

seed yield/plant, crop yield, and protein and oil content were observed when higher levels

o f P and FYM were supplied. Better resuhs were obtained with Rhizobium + PSB

compared to Rhizobium of PSB supplied individually.

35

Cfiapter2 ................... ■ ■ <Review o f Literature

Rhizobium microorganisms mediate soil processes such as exudation o f soluble

compounds, storage and releases o f nutrients and water, nutrient mobilization and

nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification and sulfur reduction (Khan et al., 2007).

Li-minglei et al., (2007) studied the effect o f different organic fertilizers on plant

character, quality and yield o f soybean. Application o f organic- inorganic fertilizer could

prolong the growth period and improve the plant height, branches, pods per plant, and

seeds per plant, 1 0 0 -seed weight, and seed weight per plant, yield, protein and fat o f

soybean. The bio fertilizer reached significant difference compared with no fertilizer, but

it did not reach significant difference compared with the chemical fertilizer. The organic-

inorganic fertilizer not only promoted the growth, but also improved the yield and quality

o f soya bean. The bio fertilizer could significantly improve the quality o f soya bean, but

its ability to increase the yield was similar to that o f the chemical fertilizer.

Another group o f beneficial soil microorganisms is represented by associative

bacteria capable o f promoting plant growth by means o f several biological processes

(Chaparro et al., 2012), including the production o f several plant growth hormones as

auxins (Ashraf et al., 2011; Tien et al., 1979), gibberelins (Bottini et al., 1989),

cytokinins (Strzelczyk et al., 1994; Tien et al., 1979), ethylene (Strzelczyk et a l, 1994),

the capacity to induce plant resistance to diseases and stresses (Wang et al., 2009), to

solubilizing phosphate (Rodriguez et al., 2004), and also biological nitrogen fixation

(Ashraf et al., 2011; Dobereiner and Pedrosa, 1987).

Considering the main limitations to the biological N fixation with soya beans and

common beans inoculated with rhizobia and the benefits to crop growth attributed to

36

chapter 2 — ■ ^(eview o f Literature

Azospirillum, co-inoculation with both microorganisms might improve plants

performance, (Chaparro et al., 2012).

Poultry manure

Smith (1950) observed that in poultry manure, two percent o f nitrogen in the form

o f uric acid, which changes rapidly to ammonia form for easy utilization by the plants.

Borwn (1958) stated that the poultry manure increased the growth promoting

substances which might have induced the plant for better growth and higher uptake of

nutrients. Poultry manure is a rich source o f nutrients besides serving as a soil conserving

material as stated by Eno (1966).

Poultry manure is a concentrated source o f nitrogen and phosphorus. It is well

documented to be an excellent source o f fertilizer (Simpson, 1990, Edward and Daniel,

1992).

Improvement in soil physico-chemical properties, steady and adequate supply of

nitrogen might have increased the nutrient uptake by poultry manure. A similar resuh was

recorded by (Hsieh and Hsu, 1993) in different crops.

Application o f poultry manure at higher rates increased the soluble phosphorus

concentration in soil (Wameke and Siregar, 1994). Poultry manure is a rich source of

nutrients, since liquid and solid excreted together with loss of urine and it ferments

quickly (Dhillon et al., 1996).

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chapter 2 ’Review o f Literature --------------- =

An important factor, which contributed or influenced the crop to produce better

growth and yield components, was high amount o f phosphorus availabihty in the poultry

manure (Ramesh, 1997).

Appavu et al., (2000) reported that the application o f poultry manure @ 5 t ha’*

had significantly recorded higher seed yield (1039 kg ha’*) fallowed by application o f

FYM @ 12.501 ha -1 (899kg ha’*) over control (638 kg ha *) in soya bean.

The application o f poultry manure (PM) can particularly increase the growth and

production o f maize (Hirzel et a l , 2004; Sharpe et al., 2004; Tambone et al., 2007). In

addition, N in PM is known to be readily available for plant uptake (Kitta et al., 2002;

Hidaka et al., 2004).

Poultry manure has long been used by ancient farmers as a source o f nutrition and

its benefits has been fully realized because o f its low cost (Whener A and Guner, 2004).

Poultry manure application has been reported to increase soil concentration of

both total and soluble P, as well as concentration o f specific P forms, including stable

organic P moieties (Erich et al., 2002; Ylivaninio et al., 2008; Waldrip- Dail et ah, 2009).

Poultry manure had been reported to improve growth and yield o f maize

(Ezeibekwe et al., 2009) and improves the chemical and biological qualities o f the soil

which increases crop productivity than chemical fertilizers (Obi and Ebo, 1995).

Though manures are usually very bulky and the cost o f transporting them from

one location to another is high, they are safer sources o f the nutrition as they are

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chapter 2 = = ^ = — = Review o f Literature

environmental friendly, release their nutrition in a slow and steady manner to crop in the

field thereby activating soil microbial activities (Eifedi}^ and Remison, 2010).

Chlorophyll

Leaves are the principal organs o f photosynthetic production. The total leaf area

available for photosynthesis is an integrate o f number o f leaves and its area (Fagade and

DeD utta, 1971).

Singh et al., (1993) reported that the foliar application o f iron sulphate or trace

elements promoted rebreeding o f chlorotic leaves, increased chlorophyll content and

increased pod and haulm yield o f ground nut.

Aishwath et a I., (2003) reported that the chlorophyll content increased with

increasing levels o f N, P2O5 and FYM. Chaudhary et al., (2003) studied the effect o f

three phosphorus (P) levels (20, 40 and 60 kg/ha), three sulfiir (S) levels (0, 30 & 60

kg/ha) and two phosphate solubilizing bacteria (FSB) levels (with or without inoculation)

on the growth, yield and nutrient uptake o f wheat. The increasing levels o f P and S upto

60 kg/ha significantly increased the plant height, dry matter accumulation, number of

tillers, chlorophyll content, effective tillers, number o f grain per year, test weight, seed

yield, straw yield and protein content in seed.

Aishwath and Dravid (2004) reported that the chlorophyll index o f yield o f wheat

increased with increasing levels o f N alone (at 0, 60, 80, 120 kg/ha) or in combination

with P (0, and 60 kg/ha) FYM, (0 and 120 t/ha) o f wheat.

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CHapterZ ^ ^ = = g <Review o f Literature

Wu-xiaoping et al. (2004) studied the effect o f photosynthetic bacterium (PSB) or

organic fertilizer applied to tobacco {Nicotiana tobacum), radish {Raphanus sativus),

soya beans {Glycine max) and pachyrhizus (Pachyrhizus). The results showed that PSB

could improve the soil microorganism, promote the growth o f bacteria, Azotobacter,

Rhizobium, Actinomyces, and restrain the growth o f fungi on the soil. It increased the

amount o f root nodule and accelerated the crop to absorb nutrients in the soil and

increased the amount o f chlorophyll.

Rajendran et al., (2008) reported that the amount o f chlorophyll increased with

the co-inoculation with Rhizobium and PSB.

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