CHAPTER - II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Studies on Empowerment

2.2 Studies on DWCRA

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A review of the earlier studies on Women Empowerment is

essential to identify the issues already investigated so as to highlight

the hitherto unexplored areas for further study. Therefore, a brief

review of some of the relevant literatures on DWCRA, allied group

activities and empowerment is attempted in this chapter.

This chapter has been divided in to two sections namely:

® Studies on Empowerment

Concept, Strategies and Approaches

Factors influencing Empowerment

Collective Action and Empowerment

o Studies on DWCRA

Income-generating activities

Group Initiatives

Socio-economic factors

STUDIES ON EMPOWERMENT

Concept, Strategies and Approaches

Laxmi Devi (1998) defines empowerment as an active,

multidimensional process, which should enable women to realize

their full identity and powers in all spheres of life. It would consist

of greater access to knowledge and resources, greater autonomy in

decision making, greater ability to plan their lives, from shackles

imposed on them by custom, belief and practice. Generally,

development with justice is accepted to generate the forces that lead

to empowerment of various sections of population in a country and

to raise their status.

29

Chaudhry (1996) discussed different empowerment strategies

of women empowerment such as literacy, technical skill

development, constitution safeguards, nutritional and health

intervention, social legislation, women’s group activity, income

generation and self employment schemes, effective implementation

of legislation, safeguarding women’s rights and thrift and credit

schemes which improve the status of women and these strategies

mainstream the women in to empowerment process.

Batliwala (1994) found in her study of empowerment

programmes in South Asia that the notion of empowerment has its

roots in the interaction between feminism and ‘popular education’.

Further *the goals of women’s empowerment are to challenge

patriarchal ideology to transform the structures and institutions

that reinforce and perpetuate gender discrimination and social

inequality and to enable poor women to gain access to and control

of both material and informational resources. Externally induced,

the empowerment process begins from women’s recognition of the

forces that oppress them: this eventually leads to action. However,

in-order for the process to lead to sustained changes, collective

action must occur. The author identifies three approaches to

women’s empowerment: the integrated development approaches the

economic development approach, and the consciousness raising

approach.

Rowbotham (1994) documents women’s experiences of

creating new forms of economic organising that addresses the

inequalities of gender, class and race and recognises the actual

conditions of poor women workers. The case studies also highlight

the constraints within which these women operate. For example,

one case study look at the ‘struggle and development’ strategy which

combines trade unionism with co-operative production, and has

organized thousands of poor women around labour concerns as well

as health and welfare issues.

(.Sydney Schuler and Syed Hasheme (1996) in their study on

empowerment of women in Bangladesh, focused on empowerment

have provided that there are six specific components to women’s

empowerment in Bangladesh: Sense of self and vision of a future,

mobility and visibility, economic security status, decision making

power within the household, ability to interact effectively in the

public sphere; and participation in non-family groups. Among the

examples of collective empowerment and action, they report cases of

women’s group taking action against the husbands of the group

members who either beat or divorce their wives, of government

groups taking part in local judicial measures, of women’s group

fielding their own candidates and voting according to their own

minds.

Karl (1995) while highlighting the different forms of

participation of women in their communities and society, feels

political participation is central to the empowerment process. She

argues that empowerment of women involves the interplay of four

interrelated and mutually reinforcing components: collective

awareness building, capacity building and skills development,

participation and greater control and decision-making power and

action to bring about greater gender equality.

Peggy (1989) observes that the strategy of empowerment is

being co-opted by international agencies to conceal structural

adjustment policies; these policies threaten women by decreasing

their access to income and services, while increasing the demands

on their time to fill the gaps created by reductions in social services.

Political activism is considered as central to the author’s concept of

empowerment. Empowerment is a spectrum of political activity

31

ranging from acts of individual resistance to mass political

mobilizations that challenge the basic power relations in our society.

Bhasin (1985) noted that to empower the rural poor,

especially the women, female development workers must first

empower themselves. In addition to the rural poor and the

participants themselves, the workshop also aimed to empower

South Asia’s initiatives that address rural poverty as well as

ideologies and strategies, which support women and workers. She

also highlights some of the successful initiatives of South Asian

NGOs, such as the Self-Employed Women’s Association in India,

Gonoshasthaya Kendra in Bangladesh and Participatory Institute

for Development Alternatives in Sri Lanka.

Mahmud (1994) explains the complex relationships between

women’s work, education, status, empowerment and fertility by

citing empirical evidence of women’s educational level and fertility;

the more education a woman has, the more likely that she will delay

marriage, desire a smaller family and use contraception. The

authors argue that policies that rely on increasing women’s

educational and work opportunities to reduce fertility are

insufficient. They support ‘strategies for women’s empowerment

that lead to their increased autonomy. In conceptualizing women’s

status and autonomy, three dimensions of inequality are commonly

considered - inequality in prestige, in power and in access to or

control over resources.

Schuler (1993) contend that because women’s subordination

is part of a cultural system, the process of empowerment must

ultimately weaken the systematic basis of women’s subordination.

An approach to study the empowerment process, then, is to focus

on the village community as the focus of social change, and on the

individual woman as the primary unit of analysis. The author

32

identified six domains in which women have traditionally been

subordinated, and in which empowerment is believed to be taking

place, sense of self and vision of a future; mobility and visibility:

economic security; status of decision-making power within the

household, ability to interact effectively in the public sphere; and

participation in non-family groups.

- Purushothaman (1998) in her book, “The Empowerment of

Women in India - Grass roots Women’s Networks and the State”,

with a vigorous vision of the empowerment that poor women might

acquire through organized effort, has criticised the experience of

Swayam Shikshan Prayog (SSP-SPARK) for reliable information

regarding the different forms such effort could take. Her analysis

has provided convincing explanations of the SSP’s redistribute

activities rather than of its occasional successes in changing

government policies.

Sharrna (1991-92) examines the debate on the dynamics and

role of grassroots organisations in empowering women, particularly

poor women. The term empowerment refers to a range of activities

from individual self-assertion to collective resistance, protest and

mobilization that challenge basic power relations. For individuals

and groups where class, caste, ethnicity and gender determine their

access to resources and power, their empowerment begins when

they not only recognize the systematic forces that oppress them but

act to change existing power relationships.

- Sahay (1998) in her book, “Empowerment of women:

approaches and strategies”, has offered an understanding of the

need to empower women. In addition, she has brought out different

approaches and strategies for empowering women by outlining the

mechanisms and tools and stressing that woman are to be employed

for their empowerment.

33

, Sophy (2000) observed that member of a Women’s Dairy Co­

operative Society are more aware of social issues, develop their

leadership abilities, self-reliance, to boost them in their self

confidence. Each and every member is the member of the Self-Help

Group to meet their urgent financial qeeds and to create a margin

fund to obtain credit from financial institutions.

- Narasimhan (2000) in her case study of an NGO - AWARE

(Action of Welfare and Awakening in Rural Environment), assessed

the effectiveness of an alternative strategy of development and

empowerment of women that begins with awareness generation (i.e.

empowering women psychologically first with confidence,

information and optimism) and motivation rather than economic

interventions.

Factors influencing Empowerment

, Devadas (1999) in her study on “Empowerment of women

through Self-Help Groups” reveal that the desire for self-confidence

a better quality of life, desire for a better status in the family,

effective communication skills, willingness to share responsibility,

self-reliance, self expression and desire for a better status in the

community are the attributes which are highly significant among

the SHG group member who are highly empowered in those 10

attributes.

o Agarwal (2000) found that women’s education, employment

and independent economic status influenced the empowerment of

women. Srinath et.al (1993) found that income generation,

community organisation, political participation and programmes for

social welfare lead to empowerment.

Bhat et.al (2002) analyse the determinants of attainment of

higher occupational scales in service sector by women, which leads

34

to their greater empowerment among service sector employers of

Vijayapuram Panchayat of Kottayam District in Kerala. It was found

that religion and caste exercised a significant influence on the

enhancement of employment scale of the women. The impact of

father’s occupation was also positive and insignificant, which is

attributable to the lower value attached by the parents to their

daughter’s upward progress in employment.

-Stephen (1997) made an attempt to study the Kariamangalam

block of Dharmapuri District women on empowerment through

participation in Mahila Sangams. Findings show that majority of

women have been empowered and now have the personal autonomy

to take decisions in the family and at the community and societal

levels, and their economic independence was a major factor in

enabling them to participate in the decision making process in their

families. They became assertive and gained the confidence to fight

for their rights as women in all spheres of their family life.

' Karmakar (1998) found that more than half of the women

have better financial discipline in home management and enjoyed

more freedom in decision making. They could resist male %

domination in the family as well as in their work place after their

involvement in Self Help Groups.

' Joshi (1994) in her study on “Working Women and Household

Decisions” revealed that majority of the respondents irrespective of

their age, education, income and personality played a dominating

role in decision making in family related activities. Economic

empowerment of women is based on their participation in decision­

making process with regard to raising and distribution of resources,

i.e. incomes, investments and expenditure at all levels. The entire

effort of empowering women is to help them to exercise their rights

35

in decision making at all levels and in every sphere both within and

outside the household as equal partners in the society.

Alay ne et.al (1994) examines the impact of the intra

household dynamics on women’s reproductive decisions and

outcomes in rural West Africa. They found in their study that

‘between’ gender relations and ‘within’ gender relations (specifically

relations among women) in the household, determine women’s

degree of control over material and non-material resources which

influence reproductive options and outcomes. Moreover, women’s

relationships beyond their household, i.e. also affect reproductive

decisions in other households in the community and in the

economy,

Jyothi et.al (1999) focusing on the empowerment of rural

women and their role in decision making in farm, financial and

household activities in Kolar District of Karnataka, found that

women’s participation in farm and financial decision-making were

positively associated with educational level of husband and

empowerment of women.

Laxmi Devi (1998) states that in determining the status of

women in India, factors such as role of women in decision making in

the family and in the community, their educational status, their

participation in social, political and economic activities and their

position in the various professions as well as their legal status in

terms of marriage, divorce and inheritance of property should be

taken into consideration.

Basu et.al (1999) conducted a case study of West Bengal

village on empowerment and found that proper training given by

experts to poor village livestock owners (women) organised by Non-

Governmental Organisation (NGO) network, made women

36

independent and confident to man the programme by themselves

after the project period was over.

Jayashree (1999) found that financial autonomy is better

among the low class working women than the educated white

collared educated employed women. More of low class women have

higher autonomy than middle class women in the freedom of

exposure to the outside world. Further, low class women played

major role in domestic affairs than middle class women and she

suggested that economic independence of women through

employment may not be a key to the empowerment and

emancipation of women. However, the power has to be attained

through self-confidence and socialistic process.

Gunasekaran et.al (2001) developed indices to measure the

level of women’s autonomy and to assess the influence of women’s

autonomy on fertility decline in Tamil Nadu. The study indicated

that women who had entered into the marital life with adequate

physical (late marriage) and mental soundness (knowledge gain

through education) were able to enjoy more autonomy. Added to

this advantage was their income earning capability and exposure to

mass media.

Women are empowered through an increasing control of

economic resources, especially income, and through education

(Blumberg 1995). Women’s control of economic resources relative to

that of men is the most important factor affecting the degree of

gender equality. The cases studied by Blumberg, drawn from Latin

America, Africa, Eastern Europe, China and the Islamic nations

explore the ways in which economically empowered women

contribute to the wealth and well-being not only of their families but

to their communities and societies.

37

Vidyamali’s (1993) study, based on a field survey of the tea

plantation sector of Sri Lanka, contends that women’s economic

independence, a necessity for women’s empowerment, requires not

only women’s access to resources, but also women’s control of their

own income. In Sri Lanka, despite the fact that female tea

plantation workers bring home relatively higher remuneration than

their husbands who also work at the plantations, their economic

independence has not improved because male workers normally

collect their women’s earnings and they have exclusive control over

household income.

.Tapan (1998) made an attempt to study women empowerment

in India with special reference to the State of Madhya Pradesh.

Findings reveal that education plays an important role in changing

women’s attitude towards population decisions. Information about

health and nutrition, reproductive and sexual rights, family

planning decision, gender equality, environment awareness,

religious objectives, political consciousness, economic opportunities,

women’s rights and legal provisions, production and consumption

patterns etc., will definitely empowered women in a complete sense.

Lalitha (1997) focusing on the empowerment of rural women,

through Development Bank in Dindigul District of Tamil Nadu,

found that there is significant difference in the employed days of

women borrowers, before and after the bank loan and empowerment

in many dimensions. It has also been proved in the study that with

necessary forward and backward linkage facilities under an

organizational set up, credit promoted activities of women borrowers

have resulted in the emergence of effective potential women

borrowers. Productive utilisation of bank loan, high income

generation and better record of repayment.

38

Raheim (1995) Employment programmes to promote economic

self-sufficiency of low-income women in the United States. By

highlighting its advantages the authors feels that Furthermore, self-

employment programmes provide the flexibility that women need to

manage child care and family responsibilities as well as increase

women’s self-confidence that comes form learning to manage one’s

business. Female entrepreneurship is stated to have the potential

for women's empowerment and this undermines male control in the

home in the work place and of the social welfare system.

In a country where unemployment is rampant ‘self

employment’ is the best alternative for eking out a living. For

illiterate unskilled poor women who are unable to offer themselves

for employment in the labour market self-employment is a boon.

Many poor downtrodden women in order to supplement the meager

family income are engaged in self-employment ventures such as

snacks, fruits and vegetables vending, pickle making, papad making

tailoring etc. But unfortunately they are unable to avail any bank

loan due to their inability to offer collateral or security. They borrow

from moneylenders, pay high rates of interest and get into debt trap.

They are forced to wind up their business venture due to financial

crisis. In such a context, how NGO intervention could be of much

help is portrayed by Seethalakshmi and Shanthi (1998) in their

article 'Economic Empowerment through Self Employment.

NABARD (2002) conducted a study on SHG’ covering 560 SHG

member households from 223 SHGs spread over 11 states showed

that there have been perceptible and wholesome changes in the

living standards of the SHG members, in terms of ownership of

assts, increase in savings and borrowing capacity, income-

generating activities and in income levels. The involvement in the

group significantly contributed in improving the self-confidence of

39

the members. The feeling of self-worth and communication with

others improved after association with the SHGs. The members

were relatively more assertive in confronting social evils and

problem situations.

Emphasising the significance of group-approach to income-

generating activity, a case study on Self-Help Groups (Singh and

Jain 1998) reveals that a group of 10 members Rajibpur Village in

West Bengal, engaged in making of ice-cream spoons from wood

leaflets could earn an average of Rs. 100 per day. The team

procures the raw-material and debits the amount from the sale

proceeds of each member. In all, the group of 10 is able to save Rs.

300/- i.e a saving of Rs. 30/- per head per week as a result of

reduced expenditure on transportation and packaging.

Rao et.al (1998) found that majority of the women were

actively participating in the group savings and income generating

activities. Most of the women started self-employment ventures like

petty shops, canteens, tailoring units, and dairy activities from the

land taken from the SHG groups. Majority of the women (55

percent) were having total savings of Rs. 3000 to 4,000 and are

likely to continue the savings in SHGs.

Gopalakrishnan (1998) also found that majority of the

Scheduled Caste, young agricultural labourers and artisans

obtained loans and created some assets especially goats and milch

animals. All the members have come out of the clutches of local

money-lenders after joining in SHG, due to the money available with

the group at comparatively lower interest. They showed positive

change towards childcare, environment sanitation, drinking water

supply, and were confident of representing with any official and

participated in local Panchayat elections.

40

Devadas et.al (1999) in their research study on economic

empowerment through Self-Help groups through NGOs in Kerala

and Tamil Nadu, found that the members of the SHGs contributed

savings through the NGOs in Tamil Nadu to the tune of Rs.

14,23,391 whereas in Kerala, it was as high as Rs. 63,42,779.- The

total amount given as loans to the members of SHGs by the NGOs

in Tamil Nadu accounted for 95.7percent and that in the NGOs of

Kerala, it was 91.24 percent. Recovery from the members of SHGs

by the NGOs of Tamil Nadu was found to be 82.8percent and that of

Kerala was 85.9 percent.

A study on ‘SHGs’ conducted by Rajeswari (2002) show that

quarry workers of Thennampatti village in Dindigul District who are

the members of SHGs have gained a great deal of self -confidence,

learned to priorities their needs, bring in better financial discipline

and gained freedom in decision-making, freedom of mobility,

freedom to act independently and got freed from the clutches of

money lenders through their collective effort and got empowered in

multi dimensions.

Collective Action and Empowerment

Rao (1997) found that Mohanpur Hostasilpa Mahila

Samobaya (Co-operative) Samiti in North Tripura District, provides

women with collective work, visits to market to purchase raw

material and expected. Handing over of products to the corporation,

this led to a change in their confidence and knowledge of outside

world. Most of the women reported spending their income on the

family in consultation with their husbands.

Bhatia’s study (2000) reveals that the voluntary agencies of

Kamrup District were playing an important role in women’s

education as well as in general by adopting group approach of

welfare. Their contributions were highly felt not only in their ability

41

in organizing women of the community concerned towards greater

awareness, self - reliance and social consciousness but also in

implementing various socio-economic schemes of the Government

agencies towards women’s development,

Shanthi’s (1998) case study of four voluntary organisations

reveal that though these organisations lack gender ideology and

gender planning in their income generation programmes, they do

serve women’s cause by paying attention to their practical needs.

NGO intervention has helped the women beneficiaries to acquire

new skills, confidence and managerial capability. Articulation of

their ideas and problems in Madhar Sangam meetings has helped

these women to realize their own potential and the advantages of

group action in dealing with violence and exploitation.

A study on selected Voluntary Agencies in Dindigul District by

Kennedy (2001) found that they through the formation of more

Mahila Sangams, introduction of more activities in the target areas,

improvement in the strategies employed in mobilising the rural

women tread to empower them. He has suggested that Voluntary

Agencies have to be involved in the all round development activities

viz. education, health and sanitation, environment, economic,

income generating activities and to create the motivation towards

women’s empowerment and their development.

A case study of Tendu leaves project in India narrates that in

a remote village in Kerala, women collect tendu leaves to wrap' local

cigarettes called beedy (an activity undertaken by millions of poor

Indian Women). The project offered to provide the materials to

construct the drying centre as a pilot project. The women provided

their labour by forming a cooperative society. This society led them

in a collective strength towards empowerment in achieving regular

income and employment opportunities.

42

Joseph (1998) advocates an integrated approach to the socio­

economic upliftment of the weaker sections especially the women

through a service society. They have multifarious programmes such

as adult and non-formal education preventive and curative

medicine, ante-natal and post natal care, potable drinking water

scheme, housing and sanitary latrines to the poorest and income

generation programmes, in addition to vocational training

programme specially designed for women.

Rao (1984) in his study of Voluntary Agency in Andhra

Pradesh concluded that the beneficiaries of the organisation had not

only become more articulate and formed groups of their own but

had also developed increased awareness to fight against

exploitation.

National Institute of Rural Development (1987) revealed that

DWCRA has mainly focused on economic activities but ignores other

components like child care, adult education and reduction in the

drudgery of women’s work and overall organization of women.

Though a number of groups have been formed, only a few of them

were able to implement the schemes successfully noted the study

and added that most of the DWCRA groups took up traditional

economic activities rather than non-traditional activities. Marketing

of products was reported to be difficult and one of the weakest

points of the programme.

A concurrent evaluation of the impact of DWCRA programme

on rural women of Bihar, Manipur, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu

states by Mohiuddin et.al (1987) confirmed that prompt repayment

of loan was a consistent feature with women beneficiaries.

Marketing was a general problem, along with distance of improved

staffing pattern, which affected the proper implementation of the

programme.

43

Sivarami Reddy (1988) studied DWCRA groups in Cuddapah

District of Andhra Pradesh and found that only 156 out of the 218

units sanctioned were functioning well. The factors responsible for

62 units becoming defunct were lack of marketing facilities for non

traditional items such as dresses, candles and plastic goods etc

STUDIES ON DWCRA

Income Generating Activities

An evaluation study of DWCRA programme by Shri. Krishna

Devaraya University (1993-94) revealed that the programme had

positive economic and social impact on the living conditions of the

member families. Average monthly income of the members rose by

39 per cent, dependency on moneylenders totally eliminated and the

occupational pattern changed.

Nageswara Rao and Subhashini (1996) studied the

functioning and impact of DWCRA programme in Ananthapur

District of Andhra Pradesh and found that the DWCRA. programme

generated additional incomes and employment and also increased

the saving habit, which resulted in regular repayment of loan. The

problems faced by the DWCRA groups were the inadequate loan

amount, lack of marketing facilities and difficulties in securing raw

materials, which could be overcome by intervention of government

department especially (DRDA).

A study of DWCRA groups consisting of Scheduled Tribes in

the Garo Hills of Megalaya state conducted by Shankar Chatterjee

(1999) revealed that DWCRA has contributed substantially to

economic upliftment of the poor people who were engaged in piggery

and weaving activities. Further, DWCRA has helped them to work

more united, with vigor and vitality.

44

Francis and Sithalakshmi (1987) in their study on the

functioning of DWCRA in Periyar District of Tamil Nadu, indicated

that increase in income was the obvious benefit of the scheme. The

ability to save money, obtaining nutritious food and relief from

indebtedness were reported to be the other benefits. The major

limitation was inadequate loan amount.

An evaluation study by Malarkodi and Jothimani, 1987 on the

functioning of DWCRA in Dharmapuri District of Tamil Nadu

covering 40 groups indicated that DWCRA beneficiaries had gained

an income between Rs.300-400 per month from the trade. It was

also suggested that sanction of loans in time, marketing facility,

arrangement for raw material, provision of common work centers

being essential for the scheme to succeed.

The performance of the DWCRA groups in Trichy District,

(DRDA 1997) indicated that 900 women from 100 DWCRA groups

got employment opportunities. A saree production centre organised

by DWCRA group with 38 looms at Manamedu provided an income

of Rs.250-400 every month, which helped in a big way to

supplement their family income.

An assessment of DWCRA experiment in Pudukottai District

of Tamil Nadu (1997) brought to light that most of the beneficiaries

who had little or no income earlier are now increasingly becoming

self-dependent with the Centre’s financial assistance. As a result,

they were relieved from absolute poverty, and could acquire social

and economic dignity through hard work. The study also revealed

that women who got trained under the DWCRA scheme in gem

cutting and polishing, have got a loan assistance of Rs. 14,000 each

and they earned up to Rs.2,400 per month.

45

A case study undertaken by Murugan (1999) in Sivagangai

District of Tamil Nadu found that that DWCRA beneficiaries have

improved their socio-economic status and participated in awareness

camps, undergone leadership training, gained self-confidence and,

developed the habit of saving.

A case study on ‘Empowerment of women through Voluntary

Organisation” by Soundarapandiyan (2002), in Madurai District of

Tamil Nadu, reveals that the women’s income had a positive

correlation with the nutritional and educational status of the family

through participation in DWCRA programme.

Dwarakanath’s (1999) evaluation study on ‘DWCRA in Andhra

Pradesh’ found that there was no favourable power structure at the

grass root level for the development of women, economic

development and consequently, social transformation of rural

women is not possible when the rural women actively participated at

the micro level.

Narasimhalu et.al (2002) in their study observed that BC

communities are having more membership in DWRCA rather than

the ke SC, ST and OCs. The problems experienced by the DWCRA

members were lack of proper training, respondents have to work

properly and no demand for their work, dissatisfaction towards the

amount of loan as it was not sufficient, inconvenience and difficulty

due to red-tapism, corruption and involvement of the middlemen in

getting loan and also marketing problems.

Nefa and Someshwar (1995) have studied the functioning of

DWCRA programme in Ananthapur District of Andhra Pradesh. The

findings reveal that the importance of thrift was felt by 80 per cent

of the members. The DWCRA programme has helped in creating an

additional employment of about 24 days per month and an

46

additional income of Rs.333/- per month as against Rs.133/- prior

to joining the programme. Further, the collective efforts of the

group members helped them to solve the problems like fighting for

equal wages, proper management of supply under public

distribution system and prevented men folk from liquor

consumption.

An evaluation study by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj and

Rural Development (1997-98) also found that there was remarkable

impact of DWCRA on child schooling, child immunization, savings,

income and family planning. However, the study noted that the

illiteracy among women was an obstacle for the progress of the

programme.

The study on the functioning of DWCRA programme in

Samastipur District of Bihar state by Arumina Kumari, et.al (1987)

revealed that all the group organizers learned to utilize their leisure

time in productive and. purposeful activities. Marketing of finished

goods was the major hurdle faced by them and suggested that

incorporating social inputs into the scheme.

A study by (Prasad 1988) in Bihar State pointed out that lack

of attractive packaging and good advertisements posed problems for

the DWCRA group which was producing glycerin soap. Lack of

managerial input, lack of quality consciousness, competition from

big companies and rigidity against diversification were some of the

problems faced by the DWCRA groups producing consumer goods.

A study on DWCRA in Periyar District of Tamil Nadu’ by

Vanmathi and Sithalakshmi (1987) revealed that the income of the

DWCRA members increased due to the adoption of new trade.

However it noted that the special features of the programme have

not been internalized properly both by the officials as well as

47

beneficiaries. The study also observed that group mobilization,

collective action, entrepreneurship development and integration of

social inputs are inadequate.

An evaluation of 27 DWCRA groups in Dharmapuri District by

Evaluation and Applied Research Department, Govt, of Tamil Nadu

(1989) found tangible asset creation only in 11 out of 22 trades.

The groups were able to earn a net income of Rs.50-100 per week

per family. Majority of the groups have repaid their loans regularly.

On the whole, the study reported the performance of DWCRA groups

as satisfactory.

Studies Related to Socio-economic Factors

A case study by Rizwana (1992) on DWCRA groups in Mandi

District of Himachal Pradesh, examined various management issues

and the factors influencing the success. The study observed that

variations in age, literacy, language and cultural levels have not

affected the cooperation and understanding among group members.

Dynamic leadership and the demand for the product are the two

reasons for success of these groups. Women, being sensitive to

their obligations have displayed a good financial discipline. Loan

repayment was smooth and it was almost 100 per cent.

Through a case study, Prasad (1993) has carefully examined

the socio-economic factors that made DWCRA groups successful in

Gurgoan District of Haryana state. The author identified that

factors like (i) homogeneity of the groups in terms of location, caste

and occupation leading to cohesiveness which in turn contributed to

the success, (ii) ensuring regular income from the economic activity

as the prime motivating factor for sustainability, (iii) high degree of

awareness about the bank procedures pertaining to credit and

repayment and (iv) systematic planning for skill training, raw

material supply, quality control and marketing support from

48

officials as the factors influencing the effective management of the

programme.

An attempt made by Manimekhalai and Raj end ran (1993) to

assess the achievements of DWCRA groups in Tiruchirapalli District

in terms of physical and financial aspects revealed that the coverage

of villages and groups were higher in phase I than the second phase.

The per capita subsidy, credit and investment also seem to be lower

in the first phase than in the second phase. It suggested that

women in rural areas should be educated and made to understand

the significance of the programme, which improve their economic

and social status.

Yadappanavar (1996) has examined the relative impact of

‘DWCRA’ on female beneficiaries engaged in pottery activity in the

Dakshina Kannada District. He observed that the major reason to

join the DWCRA group was extending financial support to their

family. The main problems observed in the venture were lack of

marketing facility, seasonal fluctuation in the sales volume,

competition with aluminum, steel and plastic products. The

researcher recommended to set up the State Handicraft Board in

every District and DWCRA group products to be marketed through

the District Supply and Marketing Society, DICs, Janata Bazars etc.

Rishikumar (1995) assessing the ‘Performance of DWCRA

groups’ stated that DWCRA Bazaar is a unique buyers-sellers

forum, which has become a major centre for marketing products

developed by the women folk in Andhra Pradesh. It was estimated

that women in DWCRA groups earned about Rs.200 to Rs.2000 as

additional income for their families by taking up various income

generating activities of their choice by utilizing the locally available

raw materials.

49

Kumari (2002) in her study of DWCRA programme in Chitoor

District of Andhra Pradesh found that DWCRA women are becoming

economically empowered under DWCRA scheme and witness.

Sustainable improvement in quality of life being the direct result of

improvement in knowledge and skills, improved economic status,

increased social awareness and education and organised action.

She also found marketing linkages and creation of infrastructure

ensure food and fuel security at social level, environment and area

development, which further generates employment on a sustainable

basis.

Ramachandrudu et.al (2002) studied the social costs and

benefits of women empowerment in Andhra Pradesh and found that

DWCRA programme made significant changes in women’s life.

DWCRA programme achieved, results in relatively developed

Districts with higher literacy rate, higher road connectivity and

higher percentage of women engaged in non-agricultural activities.

Rao et.al (2002) found that socio-economic conditions of

members of DWCRA and SHG members differ in many aspects. In

terms of literacy, occupational compositions and land base,

members of SHG were better placed compared to those of DWCRA.

Similarly, the percentage of women reporting empowerment and

improvement in various aspects was more among those belonging to

SHG compared to DWCRA.

An evaluation study of the DWCRA programme in

Vizianagaram District, Andhra Pradesh, Govindu (1997) found that

the impact of DWCRA programme was quite significant in the

spheres of women empowerment, economic development, education

and health status of the DWCRA beneficiaries. It also observed that

DWCRA programme generated regular income and employment

opportunities. Majority of the DWCRA beneficiaries increased their

50

savings and became aware of family planning methods than their

counterparts. The percentage of school going children and adult

literacy were also higher in DWCRA households than in non-

DWCRA households.

An experimental study on DWCRA scheme in Pudukottai

District of Tamil Nadu’ conducted by Sivaraman (1999) indicated

that the women workers proved their competence in handling the

quarry business and withstood the contractor’s tactics of applying

pressure and offering allurements. Gender inequalities within the

family and at the work site underwent radical change. The wages

also increased which resulted in a rise in their nutrition and

clothing level. The women were empowered and they send their

children to the school.

Pushpalatha et.al (1999) made an attempt to study and

analyse the DWCRA activities in Khammam District of Andhra

Pradesh. The study revealed that choice of selection of the schemes

being left to the beneficiaries, caste factor did not play an explicit

role in the formation of groups. The objective of strengthening the

economic base of the women has not been fulfilled to the fullest

extent because of insufficiency of amount sanctioned under the

Revolving Fund. Besides this, due to inaccessibility to market their

bargaining power has not increased substantially.

Group Initiatives

Sivasankaraiah and Ramappa (1993) studied the impact of

DWCRA in Ananthapur District of Andhra Pradesh. The findings

shows that majority of the respondents were illiterates and lived

below poverty line and were engaged in their traditional occupation.

All the beneficiaries doing bamboo-basket making and mat weaving

have got employment for three months in a year through DWCRA,

which was not possible before becoming DWCRA members.

51

An evaluation study of DWCRA groups undertaken by

Venkataramana (1995) in Mahabubnagar (Andhra Pradesh) found

the programme was functioning well and women groups have

benefited through income generation, which in turn determines the

health, educational and nutritional status of the family.

Suggestions given in the study were that the women must be given

training in the areas like undertaking feasibility studies, marketing,

leadership etc.

An evaluation study (1994) on the working of DWCRA groups

in West Bengal showed that perceptible improvement took place in

the socio-economic status of the DWCRA families. The study also

observed that DWCRA group leaders and beneficiaries have

contested in the election, which is the indication of emerging

scenario of empowerment among women.

A study on ‘Impact of DWCRA on women empowerment’ was

carried out by Anjaneyalu (1993) in Farooq Nagar, Mandal of

Mahabubnagar District in Andhra Pradesh. The study revealed that

after taking loan from DWCRA, the members have avoided taking

loan from private moneylenders at a higher rate of interest and they

could do income generating activity like vegetable vending business.

The decision making power, social and political awareness, savings

capacity, nutrition level and health status of the members improved.

Naidu and Vikram Singh (1994) in their study on ‘Group

dynamics in relation to DWCRA and its performance in the states of

Andhra Pradesh and Haryana, identified that members felt need,

genuine interest, and devoting enough time were the crucial factors

contributed to the success of DWCRA groups. The findings also

revealed that small groups worked more cohesively with a sense of

commitment. The study suggested that women can be engaged in

52

more than one activity in different groups in order to fetch more

income.

An evaluation study of DWCRA in Sikar District of Rajasthan

State (1991) revealed that the beneficiaries experienced increase in

their income and improvement in their standard of living. The

programme had given a feeling of satisfaction among the women

beneficiaries and a sense of inquisitiveness among other women in

the villages.

Prasad’s study (1993) on ‘Development of Women and

Children Rural Areas’ in Gurgaon District of Haryana State reveals

that the programme has made positive impact in terms of women’s

involvement in income generating activities and increasing earnings

ranging from Rs.200-300 per month. Loan and Revolving Fund

appear to be the motivating factors for the active participation of

women in the programme. The women developed positive attitude

towards repayment of DWCRA loan.

A study carried out by Khan (1997) on the functioning of

DWCRA groups in Billawad block of Kathua District reveals that the

socio-economic conditions of the group was much better after

forming DWCRA and earned a monthly income of Rs.600-700.

Before becoming the beneficiary under DWCRA, unskilled women

had to rely entirely on wage employment in the farm sector for low

wage rate. But through DWCRA each members got employment and

income throughout the year.

A report (Gramin Vikas News Letter, 1999) on the impact of

DWCRA group belonging to Scheduled Tribe in Mandui Taluka of

Surat in Gujarat state revealed that the groups engaged in

manufacturing of Nirdhan Chula (Smokeless Chula) have earned

Rs.36,000 per year. The members reported that before joining

53

DWCRA group, they felt it very difficult to maintain their family as

they were away from their houses working as agriculture labourers.

After joining the DWCRA group, they could work at their homes and

take better care of their children by providing them better food,

dress and could send them to school regularly.

An evaluation study (Thangamuthu and Manimekalai 1989) in

Trichy District of Tamil Nadu state reveals that all the sample

DWCRA beneficiaries (60 per cent) have crossed the poverty line

after availing DWCRA assistance. The study also pointed out that

they earned an average monthly incremental income of Rs.285,

Rs.460 and Rs.3448 in different trades such as masala powder and

wax candles production respectively.

A study on DWCRA group in Periyar District conducted by

Revathi and Jothimony (1990) revealed that 62 per cent of the

DWCRA beneficiaries were in a better situation after receiving

financial assistance. Forty eight per cent members have saved

surplus income for future and 16 per cent had constructed houses

of their own.

A case study by Premkumar and Rahul Kumar (1992) on the

operation of DWCRA scheme in three villages of Gulburga District in

Karnataka State showed that all the 60 respondents could cross the

poverty line through DWCRA programme. The study also revealed

that on an average, an additional income of Rs.280, Rs.395 and

Rs.280 had accrued to the beneficiaries of dairying, tailoring and

mat-weaving trades respectively. Employment status has also

improved substantially through self-employment. The problems

faced by the groups were lack of marketing facilities,

unstandardised price and scarcity of raw materials.

54

Devaki et.al (2002) found in their study that DWCRA scheme

helped the rural families below the poverty line to get an additional

income. The extra income earned through DWCRA. by the

beneficiaries was spent towards their children’s education, also

earned her entitlement in having a ‘say’ in family expenditure,

improved their food intake. But food security situation was not

improved and suggested that inbuilt nutrition education programme

should be imparted to DWCRA women.

55

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