22

CHAPTER I

GENERAL HISTORY AND PROFILE OF THE

KANCHIPURAM DISTIRCT

Kanchipuram is one of the ancient towns in Tamil Country. it has a long

and obvious history of a premier town in the South Indian Polity.

Topographically, it is located in 12° 50’ North latitude and 79° 42’ East

longitude and having a distance of 76 Kms South - West of Chennai city.1 The

total circumference of this town is 11 .60 sq km (4.55miles). The areas of

Chinna Kanchi, Periya Kanchi, Pillaiyarpalayam, Kuttrampakkam,

Tirukkalimedu, Audisonpet, Reddipet, Thumbavanam are included within the

limit of this town.2 This region is situated about 250 feet above the mean

sea level. The main land lies on the Vegavati, a tributary of the river Palar,

running from west to east of this town. It is circled by the agricultural

lands; mostly found as paddy fields. The predominant soils found the region

are of Black, Red loom, Clay and Sand. The soil has possessed the clay

occurrences pertains to the formation called upper Gondwana (shales). Above

the clays, there is an overload of sandstones ranging in density from 1.5m to

3m. These sandstones are probably used to the construction of structural

temples in this ‘region. Scholars like K.R. Srinivasan3 and K.V. Raman4 are

agreed with this fact. The region in and around of the north-east and the north-

west of Kanchipuram has

1. Francis, W.,Madras District Gazetteers, Vol.II, New Delhi, 2001, p.545. 2. Bhagavathi, K., Kancipuram (Tamil), Chennai, 2010, p.42. 3. Srinivasan, K.R., Pallava Architecture, Ancient India,Vol.I4, New Delhi, l946,p.26. 4. aman, K.V., Sri Varadarajaswami Temple, Kanchi - A Study of History, Art and

Architecture, New Delhi, 1975, p.3.

23

obtained the hard stone of quartzite gravel formation known as Kanchipuram

gravels.5 It is noteworthy to mention here that the earliest structural temples of

Pallavas are existed at Kanchipuram, which have been built with the usage of

hardstone in one of the mouldings in the basement of the shines and sub

shrines. The town has the natural slope from west to east with a fall of 42 feet.6

It is a place lies in a zone, which is affected by earthquakes in rarely. The town

area has growth on the Nandivartha pattern with multi - group of settlements

centred with the temples and palace, which was joined with straight and broad

streets segregates at right angles, it was thus on a cross pattern with palace or

temples as vista closing and terminal points at the ends of the Rajaveethi on

North and South and western ends respectively.7 The development of temple

precincts and huge participation of public in the temple rituals from different

class of people are led to the growth of urban settlement in Kanchipuram.

Burton Stein suggests that Vishnu Kanchi should have emerged with the

expansion of Varadaraja Perumal Temple during the Twelfth Century C.E.

onwards.8 The houses constructed on the heightened ground and made of burnt

bricks, and the establishment of garden at backyard, a broad front space in the

form of Thinnai or Verandah has been seen at present times. This town is

remembered for its association of Buddhism and Jainism in the ancient times.

The epigraphical sources and archaeological evidences states that the Buddha

Pallis and Jaina Fallis were existed during the medieval period. The

5. Census of India 196l, Report, Chingleput, Vol.I, Madras, 1965, p.2. 6 . Kanchipuram Master Plan, Local Planning Authority, Kanchipuram, 2000, p.2. 7. Ibid., p.3 8. Stein, Burton, Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India, Oxford, 1985, p.38.

24

congregation of religious saints, monks, devotees and pilgrims took place

there.

The Town area has possessed about 108 Siva temples; both major and

minor temples belong to the age old and newly constructed. During the times of

Arcot Nawab, the outstanding mosques of Jumma Masjid and Hazarat Auliya

Darga were constructed in the years about 1696 - 1720 C.E. at Kanchipuram.

At the times of British rule, the Church of South India built in the year 1922

and St. Marys Church was built in the year 1943. They stand to be the

worshipping places of the Christian faith.

Rainfall and Temperature

Every year, Kanchipuram district gets rainfall from Northeast monsoon

and the annual rainfall is calculated 1140mm.9 In October 1943, the severe

rainfall recorded at Kanchipuram was 457.2mm.

The record of Meteorological Observatory at Meenambakkam shows the

common meteorological condition prevailed in whole of the Kanchipuram

district.10 It records daily maximum temperature at 37.6Cc and minimum

temperature at 27.8Cc. The powerful wind direction is in the south - west in

the morning and south – east in the evening of this town.11

9. Gopalakrishnan, M., Kanchipuram and Chingleput District Gazetteers, Vol.I, Chennai,2000, p.333.

10. Ibid. 11. Kanchipuram Master Plan, op.cit., p.2.

25

Flora and Fauna

The flora of the Kanchipuram district has possessed about 1150 species

and infra specific taxa belonging to 131 families.12 The vegetation of this

district is classified into five major types. They are 1. Scrub vegetation

2. Psammophytic vegetation 3.Halophytic vegetation 4. Mangrove vegetation

and 5.Aquatic vegetation

The herpotofauna (amphia and reptiles) of the district comprises of 10

species of frogs and toads, 2 species of turtles, 11 species of lizards and 15

species of snakes 13

River

The rivulet Vegavathi runs through the Kanchipuram town, which has

been the joined in the Palar river and confluences in the Bay of Bengal. The

association of Vegavati with a Vaishnava temple of Kanchi is hailed as

Tiruvekha alias Yathothkari temple (Sonnavannam Seitha Perumal), which is

referred in the work of Perumbanarrupadai. The epigraph of various rulers

also mentions the name of Vagavati as Vekha in Tamil. They are unanimously

refers that Vegavathi flows as rivulet within the boundary of Kanchipuram

town, which is marked as one of the landmarks in the donated lands to the

temples for various purposes.14 The legendary account of Vegavathi is as

12. Gopalakrishnan, M., op.cit., Vol.I, p.24. 13. Ibid., p.31. 14. Sridhar, T.S., (ed.), Inscriptions of Kanchipurum District, Vol.I, Chennal, 2006,

p.139.

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follows; once, Brahma observed the penance at Kanchi without any notice to

Saraswathi. That led to angry of her, she took the form of Vagavathi rivulet, to

obstruct the penance. It is believed that Vishnu the interfered in the course of

Vegavathi and changed it. In the form of reclining Vishnu, who served as an

embankment enshrined in the temple called as Tiruveka alias Yathothkari

temple. The Kanchipuram Plates of Vijaya Ganda Gopala mentions that

Vegavati river basin has flourished with flower and fruit groves and sacred to

Siva.15 So, it is presumed that Vegavathi rivulet had the impact of sacred

worship in the Saivism and Vaishnavism. The Archaeological excavation at

Kanchi, which traces the change in the course of Vegavathi near

Pallavamedu in Kanchi,16 during the times of Pallavas.

People

In the early days, Kanchi included in the Tondai mandalam region and

had the original inhabitants of Vedars and Kurumbars.17 At the times of

Karikala’s rule, the residents of Kanchi region were the Eyinars, the Oliyars,

the Aruvalar and the Vadavi(Northerners).18 In the Third century C.E., the

different group of people existed in the midst of Kanchipuram has mentioned

in the work of Perumpanarrupadai, which includes the Brahman, Fishermen,

Traders, Mallas or Pallars, Toddy drawers, Idaiyas and Eyinas are notable.19 A

15. E.I., Vol.XIII, p.198. 16. Indian Archaeology -A Review, 1970-1971, Delhi, 1971, p.32. 17. Mahalingam, T.V., Kanchjpuram In Early South Indian History, Madras, 1969,

p.9. 18. Ibid., pp.11-12. 19. Srinivasa Ayyangar, M., Tamil Studies, New Delhi, 1986, p.76

27

group of people’s residences are called Cheri in Tamil. Historically, the ancient

cities of Tamil Country have referred for the existence of Cheris in the Sangam

Tamil literary works. The Cheris were existed in the cities of Kanchipuram,

Madurai, Korkai, Thanjavur, Nagapattinam and Trichy.20 Eyinar Cheri of

Kanchipuram referred in the work of Perumpanarrupadai. At the times of

Cholas, there many Cheri settlements found at Kanchi. The social division of

Right hand and Left hand was prevailed in the early medieval period. There are

some distinctive halls built for their worship and offerings in the temples of

Kanchipuram.21 According to 1901 census, the total population found as

46,164.22 Later, the growth of population has been gradually increased. The

1981 census, which records the total population was 1, 30,926. 23People

belonging to Hinduism, Christianity, Islam. etc were lived and density of

population found in thesurroundings of the temples of Kanchipuram.24

In Kanchipuram district, the Mudaliar community is one of the major

sects found in almost all parts of the district. They are divided into many sub

sects like Senguntha Mudaliar, Thondaimandala Mudaliar and so on. The term

Sengunthar indicated the possessor of a weapon called Vel. The Senguntha

Mudaliars were the age old residents of Pillaipalayam area in Kanchipuram

20. Rajaamanickanar, M., Pattuppattu Araichi (Tamil), Madras, 1970, pp.213-219. 21. Pillay, K.K., Studies in Indian History with special reference to Tamilnadu,

Author, Madras, 1979, p.344 . 22. Francis, W., op.cit., p.544 23. Gopalakrishnan,M., op.cit, Vol.II,,p.1304. 24. Kanchipuram Master Plan, op.cit., p.6.

28

town.25They are known as Kaikolars26 and generating a huge amount of cotton

clothes. The synonym of this community is known as Senguntha Padayar,

Senai Thalaivar, Danthuvayar, Karugar and Kaikolar.27 They are engaged in the

affairs of the Saivite temples of Kachchi Velukai danga, Kachchabeswara and

Tirumetralinathar respectively.28 They were bifurcated into seventy two Nadus

or Desams based on their regional habitation, which were subjected to the

authority of four Thisainadus which, in turn, were controlled by the Mahanadu

at Kanchipuram. The trade related issues are not discussed in the caste

committees, but they made negotiable settlement in the social issues prevailed

among the people of this community.29 The term Kaikkol refers to their

occupation as weavers, kai (hand), kol (shuttle).30 Historically, Kaikkolars are

interested in the matters of temple worship and temple administrative functions

in Kanchipuram. There are many instances found in the temple epigraphs.

The Brahmin community people found in a small percentage, but they

held a unique place in the society. The earliest reference about the

Brahmins settlement in Kanchipuram has been mentioned in the work of

Perumpanarrupadai about Third Century C.E.31 During the period of Imperial

Pallavas, Brahmins served as priests, ministers, accountants and committee

25. Thurston, Edgar, Caste and Tribes in Southern India, Vol.III, Government Press,

Madras, 1909, p.43. 26. Census of India 196l, Report, Chingleput, Vol.I, op.cit., p.16. 27. Kanchi Nagalina Munivar, (ed.), Sengunthar Prabhantha Thirattu (Tamil),

Madras, 1926, p.38. 28. Ibid., p.42. 29. Census of India.1911, Report, Vol. XII, Part.I, Madras, 1912, p.183. 30. Mattison Mines, ‘Models of Caste and the Left —Hand division in South India’ in

American Ethnologist, Vol.9, no.3, August. Wiley, 1982, p.468. 31. Srinivasa Ayyangar, M., op.cit, p.76.

29

members in the administrative system of the central as well as local

assemblies.32Among the Brahmins, the Vaishnavite sect predominates in

Kanchipuram town. It became the centre of Vatakalai sect of Vaishnava

Brahmins during the Vijayanagara times. The literary as well as epigraphical

sources enumerates the services of Saivite sect of Brahmins in the temple based

society. The Siva Brahmins are a separate class of temple priest should have

emerged in between the period of Ninth to Twelfth Century C.E.33 During the

period of Cholas rule, the Siva Brahmins of Kanchipuram had received the gift

of rice in a large quantity for their services.34 The Telugu speaking Brahmins

were migrated from Andhra region to Kanchipuram and other parts of Tamil

Nadu during the times of Vijayanagara rule.35 Inscriptions of Kanchipuram

speaks about the different group of Brahmins, they are Bhattas, Siva Brahmins

and Gurukkals. The Gurukkal groups of Brahmins were mostly the followers of

Bodhayana Sutras and served as temple priest in the Siva temples.36 There are

many inscriptions defines that their role in the temple services, they include

offering Pujas and performing rituals in the Hindu temples of Medieval Tamil

Country. In some instances, they were acted as witnesses in the gift and

endowment records in the temples of Kanchipuram. Bhatta group of Brahmins

32. Minakshi , C., Administration And Social Life Under The Pallavas, Madras, 1977, pp. 181-182.

33. Champakalakshmi, R., ‘The Bhakti of the Tamil Alvars and Nayanmars’ in Essays in Honour Romila Thapar, Tradition, Dissent and Ideology, New Delhi, 2001, p.145.

34. Chetti, Natesa, A., “TirukkachchiNerikuraikattu Sila Sasangal” in Sentamil (Tamil Magazine), Vol.XVIII, Madurai, 1920, p.131.

35. Subrahmanian, N., The Brahmin in the Tamil Country, Madurai, 1982, p.58. 36. Thurston, Edgar, op.cit., Vol.I, p.347.

30

had obtained as Brahmadeya irayili lands in some occasions.37 They were

engaged in the administrative affairs of Kanchi temples.

In the Chola period, the differentiation between Tondaimandalam

Vellalas, Karkata Vellalas, Nanchinad Vellalas and Kongu Vellalas had

emerged, based on the regional occupation and food habits.38 The work of

Sendan-Divakaram, attributes to Twelfth Century C.E., mentions that the chief

occupation of the Vellalas was cultivation, cow-breeding, trade, playing on

drums and musical instruments and weaving also.39There are two groups are

remarkable in this region. They are Tondaimandala Vellalas and Tuluva

Vellalas.40 The former were absolute practisers of vegetarian. The latter is

known as Arcot Mudaliars. Most of them are found as agricultural labourers.

Malayali group of people existed in Salem hills called as Kanchimandalam

Vellala, for they migrated from Kanchipuram.41 It denotes the ancientry of the

Vellalas settlement in the Kanchipuram region.

Kammalars were the artisan people found in the parts of Kanchipuram.

They are called Asaries and Pathars. Their main occupation is making

ornaments. The Tamil work of Nanmani-Kadigai refers to them as goldsmiths,

Carpenters and image makers.42 Right from the days of Cholas rule in Tamil

37. Ibid. 38. Sastri, Ramaswamy , K.S., The Tamils, Vol.3, New Delhi, 2002, p.36. 39. Ayyangar, Srinivasa, M., op.cit., p.65 40. Gopalakrishnan, op.cit., Vol.I, p.203. 41. Thurston, Edgar, op.cit., Vol.III, p.159. 42. Sasti, Ramaswamy, K.S., op.cit., Vol.3, p.48..

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country, they were members of left hand caste.43 Their original name was

Kannalan or Kannalar, found in the works of Thondai Mandala Satakam and

Er Ezhupathu. It is said that Kannalan was employed in curving out the eye of

consecrated image. They were referred into professional sections of Tattar or

Porkollar (goldsmith), Kannar (brass smith), Tachar (Carpenter), Kalthachar

(Stone Mason) and Kollar or Karumar (Black smith). Kammalars also called

Viswakarma. They are Saivites and worship the goddess Kamakshi Amman.

People belong to Nadar community known as Gramani in this district.44

Gramani is the Sanskritised form of Sanror, which denotes to learned person.45

Their main profession is toddy drawing. Most of the people were the followers

of Saivism. They have the practice of worshipping their family deities. They

were employed as foot soldiers and body guards in the past. They are said to be

migrants from the northern coast of Ceylon, where a similar caste exists under

the name Shandrar. There are many sub-divisions in this community.

Vanniar is a major cultivating group of people prevailed in this region.46

They are known as Vanniakula Kshatriyas, Vannia Gounder and Padayachi.

They have worshipped to their local deities of Mariamman, Ayyanar and so on.

Armies of Vanniars instantly mentioned in the Annals and History of Ceylon.

During the times of Madurantaka Pottabi Choda, a Telugu Chola ruler at

Kanchi issued a grant for the merit of Vannia people has notified as Vannia

43. Ibid. 44. Gopalakrishnan, op.cit., Vol.I, p.216. 45. Thirumalai, S., and Manoharan,S., Peoples of India, Tamil Nadu, VoI.XL, Part.2,

Madras, 1997, p.1050. 46. Gopalakrishnan, M., op.cit., Vol.I, p.216.

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Parru.47 Historically, they are lived in the region of Kanchipuram and engaged

in many socio-religious activities through their services in the Kamakshi

Amman temple.48

Paraiyars are agricultural workers found in all taluks of the district.49

The word Paraiyan is referred in the work of Purananuru as the people of

drummers.50 They were mostly Saivites, also worship the mother Goddess like

Mariamman, Kaliamman, Ponniamman and Mandaiamman. They performed

worship in simple way of prayers and offerings. Mostly they offer rice, flowers

and turmeric and some instances they were offering fowl to their worshipping

deities. They have the privilege of hiring temple car at annual festival held at

Kanchipuram.51 A sub sect of this community is known as Malas in this

district.52 They came from Andhra Pradesh and occupied the former districts of

North Arcot, Chengleput and Madras in Tamil Nadu.53 Later on, Kanchipuram

became one of the chief centres of this community.

Vilian is another name of Irulas in this district, they have been known

as Melnadu Irulas, Kasabas, Vettalada Irulas, Uralis and Villians. Four tribal

groups of Irulas were existed and they speak a tribal language, “erla Natya”

47. Sridhar, T.S., (ed.), Kanchipuram Mavatta Kalvettugal, Vol.II, Chennai, 2011, p.227.

48. Krishna Murthy, S., Thoziiiyal Nokkil Kanchipuram (Tamil), Chidambaram, 2010, p.201.

49. Gopalakrishnan, op.cit., Vol.1, p.217. 50 . Sasti, Ramawamy, op.cit., Vol.3, p.46. 51 . Thurston, Edgar, op.cit., Vol. IV, p.82. 52 . Gopalakrishnan, M., op.cit, Vol.I, p.218. 53 . Thirumalai, S., and Manoharan, op.cit., p.876.

33

belongs to Dravida linguistic family.54 Their tutelary deity is known as the

goddess Kanniamma. Annually, the Kanniamma pooja is observed in the

month of February at Mahabalipuram by the devotees of this group of people.

Besides the Irulas, Yenadi is another tribe, who are lived in

Kanchipuram region.55 Their spoken language is a kind of Telugu. They have

no settled work for their livelihood. In the colonial period, they engaged in the

work of collect and sell fire wood, hunting and fishery also.56Among them, two

important divisions based on numerical strength were known as Chenchu and

Manchi. Their household deity s the Chenchu Devudu, Polaramma,

Anicaramma, Subbarayudu, Venkateswaralu, Panchala and Narasimhalu.

Uniqueness of Tondaimandalam

Tondaimandalam played an important role in determining the political

superiority among the dynasties of Tamil Country. It became a place of contest

rulers of Pandyas, Hoysalas and Kakatiyas.57 Tondaimandalam is referred as

Tundira, Tundiraka, Tundaka rashtra and Tundaka Vishaya in the records of

Kasakkudi plates and Vakkaleri plates.58 The boundaries of Tondaimandalam

mentioned as Venkatam in the North, Pennai river in the South, Ocean in the

East and Pavalamalai in the West in the literary work of

54. Zvelebil, K.V., ‘Irula Riddles’ in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African

Studies, Honour of Thomas Burrow, University of London, 1979, p.361. 55. Gopalakrishnan, M., op.cit., p.227. 56. Census of India ,1911, Report, Vol. XII, op.cit., pp.169 -170 57. Sathianathaaier, R., Studies in the Ancient History of Tondaimandatam, Madras,

1987, p.1. 58. Mahalingam, T.V., Kanchipuram In Early South Indian History, op.cit., p.2.

34

Peruntogai. 59The scholarship of Tondaimandala region referred in this work,60

as follows ; ‘Thennir Vayarrondai Nannadu Sanro rudaithu” For the purpose

of effective administration, the entire region of Tondaimandalam was

separated into a number of units known as Kottam and Nadus. The exact

number of these units or Kottams is not certain but it is clear that the number is

not lesser than twenty four .61 They are generally accepted by the scholars.

T.V.Mahalingam is strongly argues that the number of Kottams are twenty

seven based on the inscription of various rulers of f South India62

Kanchipuram has been placed in the Eyil Kottam of Eyil Nadu in Jeyangonda

Chola Mandalam during the Chola times. In the field of literary growth,

Kanchi had the familiarity in the growth of Sanskrit, Pali and Tamil works.63

The Name of Kanchi and Its Variants

There are number of views regarding the origin of the name as

“Kanchi”. But there are some suggestions are taken into plausible. Among

them, T.V. Mahalingam opines that the name derived from the existence of

Kanchi tree. 64It s a poetical explanation, Kanchi as a girdle to earth in

Sanskrit.65 The local myth says that Kanchi, as a Tamil word it is split into

two series of letters Ka and anci. Ka is taken to mean Brahma and anci or

ancittal

59. Tirunavukkarasu, K.T., TamizharNagarika Varalaru (Tamil), Chennai, 1962, p.132.

60. Ragava Aiyangar, M., (ed.), Peruntogai, Madurai, 1936, p.494. 61 Pillai, Kanakasabai,V., , op.cit., p.68. 62. Mahalingam, T.V., Kanchipuram In Early South Indian History, op.cit., p.3. 63. Ibid., p.1 64. Ibid., p.4 65. Srinivasan, C.R., Kanchipuram through the Ages, Delhi, 1979, p.7.

35

to mean worship, thus that the name stands for the place where Brahma

worshipped god Siva. Kanchipuram has various names such as, Pralaya

Sindhu, Indupuram, kamapitham, Kamakottam, Sivapuram, Mummurtivasam,

Tapomayam, Sakalasiddhi, Kannikappu, Vindupuram, Dandakapuram,

Satyavratakshetra, Bhuvanasaram, Layajittu, Kalijittu, Brahmapuram,

Adipeetam etc.66 Other names mentioned in the Puranic works, they are

Kamakota Puri, Varana Sailendra, and Ekamranilaya.67 These names could be

explained with various mythological accounts about the deities installed at

Kanchipuram. The Talagunda inscription of the Kadamba Kakusthavarman

called Kanchi as ‘Pallavendra puri’. It denotes to the fame of Kanchi in

association with the Pallavas rule for a long.

Puranic And Literary Account of Kanchipuram

Among the Puranas, the Siva Puranas states that the visit of sage Vyasa

in Kanchi and its sacredness to Siva on those days.68 Markandeya Purana

mentioned that Kanchi was a place for the observance of penance.69 Garuda

Purana explains that Kanchi was one of the sacred centres for the Saivites in

India.70 In Bhagavata Purana, it has been mentioned as Kamakotipuri and

refers to the existence of two parts of the town is known as Siva Kanchi and

Vishnu .71 The Brhat Samhita and Markandeya Purana mention that Kanchi

66. Alasundaram Pillai, Kanchi Kshetra Manjari, Madras, 1906, p.2. 67. Singh, M.R., Geographical Data in the Early Puranas — A Critical Study,

Calcutta, 1972, p.269. 68 . Gopalakrishnan, M., op.cit,, Vol.II, p.1698. 69 . Ibid. 70. Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol.I, Delhi, 1991, p.3 71. Singh, M.R., op.cit, p.269.

36

was a country of South India.72 The Brhat Kalpabhasya enumerates that

Kanehi is located in Dravida Country.73 The Kanchi Mahatmiyam, Kamakshi

Vilasa Sanbhagya Chintamani refers that Kanchi was the seat of Sakti Pitha.74

The earliest literary reference about Kanchi in the Post-Maurya period is found

in the Mahabhasya of Patanjali, contains the word, Kanchipuraka, which

denotes a resident of Kanchi town.75 The reference about Kanchi in the

Sangam Tamil literature is found in the Perumpanarrupadai written by

Kadiyalur Rudrakannanar belongs to Second Century C.E., describes that

Kanchi was the busiest commercial centre and had magnificent houses,

beautified gardens, many philanthropists and many religious festivities.76

During the Sangam age, a number of poets flourished in Kanchi town. They

bore the prefix in their names with Kachchipedu. They are notified as;

Kachchipedu Ilantaccanar, author of :Narrinai 266, Kachchipedu

Kanchikkorranar, author of Kuruntogai 213, 216 and 287, Knchchipedu

Peruntaccanar, author of Narrinai 144, 213. The fertile land of

Kanchi and its association with temple worship has revealed in the anonymous

and undated old Tamil poem which praised the Tondai mandalam and its

72 . Ibid. 73. Ibid. 74. Gopalakrishnan, op.cit., Vol.II, p.1699. 75. Srinivasan, C.R., op.cit., p.9. 76. Subrahmanian, N., Sangam Polity, Madurai, 1980, p.14

37

capital of Kanchi.77 Kalidasa refers to Kanchi as the town of par excellence.78

Kanchi is referred in the work of Harsha’s Naisadha-Kavya.79

Kaccimurram is mentioned in Silappathikaram and Manimekalai. These

two epics are belonged to 5th and 6th Centuries C.E.80 The Manimekalai canto

XXVIII of the epic is named as Kancimanagar Pukka Katai, which means the

entering of big city Kanchi by Manimekalai, the heroine of this epic. It refers to

this town was strongly fortified and resplendent with towering palace was

surrounded by a moat and had big streets fit for cars to run in.81

Saivite Saint Gnana Sambandhar mentioned the weaver families of

Kanchi.82 Mattavilasa Prahasana of Mahendravarman I explain that Kanchi

incurred to the state of religious degradation in the moral order of the ascetics

and a judicial organization named Adhikarana existed at Kanchi.83 The

Nalayira Divya Prabandham refers in a line as, ”Nallaran Nanmugan

Narananukkungitantan Thadanchchulntta Alagaya Kacci” in the sense of

Kanchi as a place of worship to Siva, Brahma and Vishnu.84 The Vaishnavite

Alavars of 5th to 8th century C.E., refers to the fourteen Vishnu temples of

77. Simon Casie Chetty, The Tamil Plutarch, New Delhi, 1982, p.22. 78. Madras Information, Vol.XII, No.9, September 1985, p.13. 79. Devasenapatny, V.A., Kamakottam, Nayanmars and Adi Sankara, Madras, 1975,

p.3. 80. Zvelibil, K.V., ‘Tamil Literature’ in Jan Gonda,( ed), A History of Indian

Literature, Leiden, 1975, pp.132 and 141. 81. India’s Sacred Shrines& Cities, Madras, 1940, p.35. 82. Subrahmaniam, R., ‘Kanchipuram Excavations’ in Journal of Andhra Historical

Research Society , Vol. XXIV, Hyderabad, 1975, p.25. 83. Chitra Madhavan, History and Culture of Tamilnadu, Vol.I, New Delhi, 2005,

p.61. 84. Nalayira Divya Prabaudham; 2; 9; 1.

38

Kanchi.85 They are as follows; Vaikunda Perumal, Pandava Perumal,

Ashtabhujaswami, Varadaraja, Velukkai, Tiruvekha, Vilakkoli Perumal,

Ulagalanda Perumal, Jagannatha Perumal (Niragam), Nilathingal tundam,

Karunakara Perumal (Karagam), Karanvannam, Varaha Perumal and Pavala

Vannar. The Nandi Kalambakam refers to it as Kacci and Kanchipuram. In

Periyapuranam it has been referred that Kanchi had the cosmopolitan

characteristics of magnificent structural buildings and busiest trade

activities86and hailed as Eyirpathi.87 It is well known that Kanchi was situated

in Eyir Kottam, a territorial sub division of early medieval Tamil Country. In

the hymns of Adaikkalappattu of Srivedanta Desika it has the reference about

Kanchi as of the sacred towns in India.88 Generally, there are seven cities has

been considered as important pilgrimage centres as Ayodhya, Mathura, Kasi or

Varanasi, Kanchipuram, Avantika, Pun and Dvaravati. These pilgrimage sites

have the various physiographic and sacred to a particular faith, but,

Kanchipuram is sacred to both of Siva and Vishnu.89 It is notable that the

cred places of India as described in Ain-i-Akabari has consists of

Kanchipuram.90 It seems to be denoting that Kanchi was an important

pilgrimage centre in South India.

85. Ramaswami, N.S., Mamallapuram, Madras, 1975, p.90. 86. Nambi Arooran, K., Glimpses of Tamil Culture Based on Periyapuranam,

Madurai, 1977, p.67. 87. Sethupillai, R.P., Tamilagam Urum Perum (Tamil), Chennai, 1968, pp.72-73. 88. Deva Senapathi, V.A., Kamakottam, Nayanmars and Adi Sankara, Madras,

1975, p.1. 89. Bechan Dube, Geographical Concepts in Ancient India, Varanasi, 1967, p.101. 90. Surinder Mohan Bharadwaj, Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India, Delhi, 1973,

p.79.

39

Foreigners Account of Kanchipuram

Kanchi was an important trade centre from the period of Second Century

C. E. mentioned in the Chinese records.91 They also states that the Chinese got

pearls, glass, rare stone and rhinoceros there and gave in return of silks and

gold.92 Pankou, a Chinese writer belongs to the first century C.E. has been

referred that Kanchi as Houng-tche. Periplus Erythean Sea has mentioned the

city of Kanchi as Condiprama.93In the work of Natural History, Pliny has

described this city as Conciprama.94 The work of Geography of Ptolemy

belong to Second Century C.E., refers that Arouarnoi which probably denotes

that the territories in and around Kanchi region.95 Hiuen Tsang says

Kanehipulo and a Stupa about 100 feet high built by the Asoka Maurya in the

city of Kanchi during his visit in 634 C.E He furtherly states that Kanchi was

the seat of Buddhist culture even from the days of Buddha. In Seventh Century

C.E., there was a good transport and communications between the ancient

towns of Kanchi with Kanauj and Ujjayini of Northern India.96It seems that

trade was active in home land and abroad from that places.

91. Stein, Burton, op.cit., p.38. 92 . Sastri, Ramaswami, K.S., op.cit., Vol.3, p.308. 93. Ragahavan, V.S.V., Periplus C.A.D 50 -80 (Tamil), Chidambaram, 1979, p.266. 94. Ragahavan, V.S.V., Pliny C.A.D 23-79 (Tamil), Chidambaram, 1977, p.101. 95. Sircar, D.C., Early Pallavus, Calcutta, 1935, p.6. 96 . Dutt, R.C., History of Civilization in Ancient India — Based on Sanskrit

Literature, Vol.II, Delhi, 1972, p.185

40

Archaeology of Kanchipuram Region

Kanchipuram has the fame for its richest antiquity remains, even from

the Megalithic period. A number of archaeological excavations and

explorations concluded in this town, reveals that cultural tradition and sequence

of this region. Most of the artefacts are found with rouletted sherds, conical jars

(amphorae) unearthed at Kanchi.97 They are used as a wine cellar.98 These

artefacts would suggest that Romans’ association in the form of trade and

commercial activities that had flourished at Kanchipuram along with other

towns of Tamil Nadu. During the diggings, there are certain ring wells, pots

and chunk bangles were also discovered.99 Unearthed building between the

Seventh Century to Ninth Century C.E reveals that the cosmopolitan character

of this town. During the excavation in 1962 at Kanchipuram, reveals that

terracotta images which having the different hand postures and ornamentation.

It would suggest that Kanchi was a centre of craftsmanship in prior to the

development of art in stone in the Pallava temples.100 During the years of 1969-

1977 a series of excavations were conducted by the Department of Ancient

History and Archaeology, University of Madras at Kanchipuram in many

places. They includes, adjacent to the Kamakshiamman Temple, the Varadaraja

Perumal Temple and Gnana Prakasa Mutt. These excavations reveal a different

97. Suresh, S., Roman Antiquities in Tamil Nadu, Madras, 1992, p.43. 98. Ibid., p.49. 99. Natana Kasinathan and Chandramurti, M.A., Kanchipuram Mavatta Thatayangal

(Tamil), Chennai, 2010, p.64. 100. Subrahmanyam, R., and Raman, K.V., ‘Terracotta Figurines and other Objects

from Kanchi Excavations — 1962’, in Journal of Indian History, Vol.XLV, Part.II, August 1967, Trivandrum, 1967, pp.502-508.

41

periods, which have been starting from Third Century B.C.E., ends with

Sixteenth century C.E. During these excavations were unearthed structural

building remains and an object seems to be a stupi along with a potsherd

inscribed with the brahmi word puthala tissa which denotes a name of

Buddhist monk.101 From the above said excavations reveals that eleven coin

moulds of terracotta testifies the rule of many dynasties in Kanchipuram in the

subsequent period.102 It is the first time in Tamil Nadu at Kanchipuram had

discovered these coin moulds. They have used for making Punch mark coins.

Satavahana coins, Pallava coins and later period coins. It is obvious that a mint

for making coins had functioned in this town periodically.

Administrative History of the District

Kanchipuram District had been administered by the Pallavas, Cholas,

Vijayanagar rulers, Muhammadan kings, and the British before

Independence.103 The study of general administration of the district under these

rulers such as the division of the country and the officers incharge of

administration of these divisions reveals the development of district

administration therein.

Tondaimandalam was an ancient division of Tamil country comprising

roughly the present district of Kanchipuram, Tiruvannamalai and Madras. The

capital of Tondaimandalam was Kancheepuram. For the administrative

purpose, it was divided into 24 Kottams or divisions, many of which are still

101. Indian Archaeology —A Review, 1969-1970, Delhi,1970, pp.34-35. 102. Raman, K.V., and Shunmugam, P., “Terracotta Coin Moulds from Kanchipuram ‘

in Narasimha Murthy ,A.V., (ed.), Studies in South Indian Coins, Vol.I, Madras, 1991, p.23.

103 .Gopalakrishnan, M., op.cit., pp.88-202.

42

called by the same name.104These divisions continued during the reign of the

Pallavas also. The twenty four Kottams were 1.Paul Kottam, 2.Ekkattu Kottam,

3. Manavir Kottam, 4. Sengattukottam, 5. Paiyur Kottam, 6. EyiI Kottam

(Kanchipuram), 7. Damal Kottam, 8. Urrukkattu Kottam, 9. Kalattur Kottam,

10. Sembur Kottam 11. Ambur Kottam, 12.Venkunra Kottam, 13. Palkundra

Kottam, 14. Dangattu Kottam, 15. Kahyur Kottam, 16. Sengarai Kottam,

17. Paduvur Kottam, 18. Kalliyur Kottam, 19. Sendirukkaikottam, 20.

Kunravattana Kottam, 21. Vengada Kottam, 22. Velur Kottam, 23. Settur

Kottam and 24. Puliyur Kottam.

There are numerous inscriptions and copper plates which give excellent

glimpses of certain aspects of Pallava administration. The earliest is the

Hirahadagalli copper plate which was issued from Kanchipuram, the capital of

the Pallavas. From this copper plate, it is learnt that already in the middle of the

third century, there prevailed a system of administration with the king at the top

and the provincial governors and several departmental Ministers incharge of

parks, public baths and forests. This system of administration, in several

aspects, is comparable to that of the Mauryas and in some respects of the

Guptas.105

The Pallava kingdom was divided into Rashtras or Mandalas which in

turn were made into. Vishyas or Kottams. Tondaimandalam became the

104. Maclean, C.D., Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency Vol.I, Government of Madras, madras, 1893, p.l41; Stewart Crole, Chengalpattu District Manual, Madras, 1869, p. 438.

105. Gopalan, History of the Paliavas of Kanchi, University of Madras, Madras, 1928, p.146.

43

Tundaka Rashira of the Pallavas. Kottam was further sub-divided into Naduss

and urs or the villages.106 The Rashtras and Kottams were left incharge of the

Viceroys who belonged to royal family.

Patriarchal succession to the kingship was in vogue among the Pallavas.

There was also occasion when the ruler was elected by a selected few among

the royal family members when the king died leaving no Sons. There are also

references in the literature and inscriptions to say that there were ministers,

privy councillors, (rahasyadikadas) secretaries private secretaries and under

secretaries to the Pallava kings.107 Mathavilasaprahasanam, a literary work

authored by Mahendravarman, a celebrated Pallava King, refers to the

existence of judicial courts called Adhikarariams. There were also Village

Assemblies during the Patlava period which were incharge of the local

administration of the villages concerned. The Assembly was divided into

various committees such as Tank Committee, Garden Committee, etc., and

functioned. In Uttiramerur, it was found that Kudavolai system was in vogue in

the administration of villages by election in ancient Tamil Period.

In the middle of the Ninth Century A.D., the Cholas conquered the

Pallavas and occupied their country. Tondaimandalam, which included the

present Kanchipuram District, became one of the administrative divisions of

the Cholas. The villages were, under the Chola administration, called Kurrams

and a group of Kurrams formed VaIanadu. Above the Valanadu was

106. Minakshi, C., Administration and Social Life under the Pallavas, University of Madras, Madras, 1938, p.46.

107. Rajarnanickam, M., Pallavar Varalaru, Part.I. Madras, 1977, p.224

44

Mandalam or province.108 Tondainadu, the old name of the kanchipuram

district and its surrounding places, became a mandalam under the Cholas.This

mandalam was also known as Jayamkonda Cholamandalam.109

Kanchipuram District became a part of a division of the Vijayanagar

Kingdom (16th Century) which dominated the political arena of South India

after the fall of the Cholas. The area now Kanchipuram, Madras and

Tiruvannamalai districts were then known as Padaividu Kingdom ruled by the

Sambuvarayas owing allegiance to the Cholas. The Sambuvarayas were

defeated by the Vijayanagar Kings. The Padaividu rajyam was further divided

into districts called Kottams or Kurrams.110 Under the Vijayanagar

administration, villages in the Tamil districts were mentioned by the name

taniyur. Uttiramerur, then known as Rajendra Chola Chaturvedimangalam, was

mentioned as a taniyur in the Tondaimandalam. The provinces or mandalams

were headed by a Viceroy who generally belonged to the royal family. Later,

when the central government of the Vijayanagar disintegrated after the battle of

Talikotta, the local Chieftains assumed independence. The Nayaks of Ginjee,

were the provincial representatives of the Kanchipuram district. After the

Nayaks, owing to the political changes in South India the Carnatic became the

possession of the Arcot Nawabs in 1690 AD, who were among the vassals of

the Nizam of Hyderabad. From the Arcot Nawab, the territory, presently

known as Kanchipuram district was acquired by the East India Company as

108. Sastri, Nilakanta, K.A., The Colas, University of Madras, Madras, 1955, p.465 109. Ibid. 110. Mahalingam, T.V., Administration and Social Life under Vijayanagar, University

of Madras, Madras, 1969, pp. 185- 188.

45

Jahir, in 1760, for their logistic services rendered to the Nawab in subduing the

French in the Carnatic.

Administration of the district on the eve of the British Acquisition

The grant of Jahir to the East India Company was confirmed by the

Subedhar for Deccan of the Mughul Emperor in 1763 and by the Emperor

himself in 1765. When granted to the British, the management was left to the

Nawab of Carnatic on an annual rental basis. The system of management by the

Nawab was reported oppressive and unjust.111 The condition described, was

that the Government was rapacious and exacting the inhabitants who on their

part were evasive in collusion with the public servants in paying the taxes. In

1780, the Company having taken back the district from the Nawab’s fold

brought it under their direct management. Thus, there is every likelyhood of the

year 1780 as the birth of the district of Kanchipuram.112 On the assumption of

the direct management, the district was placed under the charge of the

Committee of Assigned Revenues. The Committee found the country divided

into sixteen divisions or pergunnahs-containing an aggregate of 2241

villages.113 This division of the district lasted until it was parcelled out into

Zamindaris (1801- 1802) with an aggregate of 3241 villages. The Committee

suggested to appoint a Resident in the district to supervise the Jahir lands and

111. Baden Powell, B.H., The Land System of British India, Vol.II, New Delhi, 1988, p.12.

112. Ibid., pp.6-l2 . 113. Sixteen Pargunnahs existed in 1780 were: Karunguli , Manimangalam, Cavaly ,

Uttiramerur, Kavatindala, Peddopolium, Chengalpattu , Perumbakkam, Kovalam , Ponneri, Egmore, Poonamallee , Great Kancheepuram, Shaulwakkam, Trippasore, Little Kancheepuram.

46

to collect the revenue. The suggestion was complied with and a Resident was

appointed. Meanwhile on 20th June 1786, the Board of Revenue was

constituted.114 The Board of Revenue abolished the post of Resident and the

district was left under a Superintendent for general and revenue administration.

Next major breakthrough in the district administration was in 1788

when, for the first time, Collector was appointed to the district. The district was

split up into two divisions, Northern and Southern and placed under two

Collectors.115 In 1789, a third Collector was also appointed to the district but

the post lasted for only one year and as in 1790, the district was once again

placed under two Collectors, abolishing the third post of the Collector.116 The

names of the two Collectors who served in the district during 1790s were Clerk

and Balfour.117

Places’s Administration

Yet another milestone in the history of the district administration is the

assumption of charge of Lionel Place in November 1794, as its Collector. From

the time the Jahir was taken out of the hands of Nawab, until the

administration of its affairs by Mr. Place, very little had been done for

improving its conditions, nor had any steps been taken…118

114. Maclean, C.D., op.cit., - Vol.III, Madras, 1883, p. 378. 115. Banuviah , M., Concise Revenue History of the Chengalpattu District, Madras,

1874. p.2 116. Charles Stewart Crole, op. cit., pp. 236- 237. 117. Ibid., p.238. 118. Banuviah, M., op. cit., p. 3.

47

Lionel Place went into the details of the internal administration of the

Jaghir.119 He detected the mismanagement in the collection of land revenue, the

collusion between the village curnams and the ryots in the evasion of taxes, the

improper maintenance of the village accounts, and he sent his findings to the

Board of Revenue in his report,, dated 6th October 1795, which has some

historical significance so far as the administrative history of the district is

concerned.

There were 16 Pargunnahs or divisions in the Jaghir (district) when the

British acquired it. Each Pargunnah was headed by a Canango. There was also

a Head Canango for these 16 canangoes. The accounts they were supposed to

maintain were not in order which came to light when the Board of Revenue

pressed for information in 1796 to which the officers pleaded ignorance.

Lionel Place deemed the officials “useless and a heavy charge on the

revenues”. With the concurrence of the Board of Revenue, Place abolished the

posts; instead, created the posts of Sharistadars under the control of the

Collector. Clerks were also appointed to assist the Sharistadars. They’

discharged the functions hitherto done by the Canangoes. The post of

Sharistadar is the harbinger of the post of Tahsildar which was created later.

Place also revived the old system of village headman. The village headmen

assisted the Collector in village settlements. In his Report to the Board of

Revenue, Place had expressed the indispensability of building a collector’s

119. Extract from Chengalpattu District Records - Report of Mr. Place, dated 6 October 1795, p.2.

48

office in the district. He also wrote to the Board the bitter experience he had

endured, during his tour, for want of an office building: “In the whole of the

Jahir although promising to become a more valuable tract than it has ever been

to the company, there is not a house adapted for the residence of the Collector

and for transacting the business of his district, independent of the preservation

of the Revenue under his charge may materially depend upon his being

furnished with a suitable accommodation”.

Place had suggested to build three offices for the Collector in the district

one each in the southern and northern tips and the other in the middle of the

district. In the subsequent years, Karunguzhi became the headquarters of the

district and it remained so upto 1859 when it was shifted to ‘Home Garden’

Saidapettai, except for a short spell (1825-1835) during which Kancheepuram

served as the district headquarters, from 1859 to 30th June 1968, the Collector’s

office was located in Saidapettai and with effect from 1st July 1968,

Kanchipuram became the district headquarters.120

Lionel Place resigned as the Collector in 1799 as there were some

differences of opinion between himself and the Board of Revenue relating to

the revenue settlement of the district. Lionel Place has left his permanent marks

in the district administration. It was reported in the Chengalpattu District

Manual (1879) that he had still lived in the memories of the people of the

district even 80 years after his association with the district.121 “His exertions

120. G.O.No. 964, Revenue Department, 17 May 1968. 121. Charles Stewart Crole, op.cit., p. 254

49

and success in the execution of Public works have been referred to. Some of

the finest tanks in the district such as Uttiramerur and Madurantakam were

practically created by him and no one, standing on the magnificent Calingula of

the latter can help admiring the genius apparent in the conception of the

scheme and in the combined beauty and strength of excution”.122

Zamindari System

In the year 1801, the district, forthe purpose of revenue administration,

was divided into 60 Zamindari Mittahs.123 Then the Collector of the district was

Greenways. During his Collectorship, Sathiavedu and Pulicat were added to the

district in 1801.

Successors to Lionel Place

Hodgson, the Head Assistant to the Collector succeeded Place as the

Collector. The place he resided at Kanchipuram is still known in the name of

Hodgsonpetta. In 1800, Hodgson was succeeded by his Senior Assistant,

122.Ibid.

123. The list of 60 Zamindaris that existed in 1801 :1. Worrutty, 2. Achchirappakkam, 3. Pakkam, 4. Chunambut, 5.Yendatoor, 6. Cheyyur, 7. Anaicut, 8. Madurantakam, 9. Palianoor, 10. Meyoor, II, Salavakkam, 12. Yedamuchi, 13. Kelianagar, 14. Pennagur, 15. Utliramerur, 18. Malayankolam, 17. Cavanlandalan, 18. Ayyappakkam, 19. Chevalamadu, 20. Dakolan, 21. Tiruppakkadal, 22. Poolalur, 23. Kanchipuram, 24. Neevaloor, 25.Thennaly, 26. Palur, 27. Chettipoonima, 28. Chengalpattu, 29. Tirckilichoonam, 30. Oragadam, 31. Cairumbaid, 32. Kyar, 33. Madurnbakkam, 34. Pallavaram, 35. Kunnathur, 36. Manimangalani, 37. Sriperumpudur, 38. Perurnbakkam, 39. Ramunjary, 40. Prippasoor, 41. Tirur, 42. Tirumazhisai, 43, Poonamalli, 44. Codunlbakkam, 45. Trivatoor, 46. Parteput, 47. Tinnariur, 48. Vadatoor, 49. Vadarnadura, 50. Reddapoliem, 51. Chinnambedu. 52. Nayer, 53. Vulloor, 54. Vayaloor, 55, Ponneri, 56. Peruvoil,57. Perumbedu, 58. Kattur, 59. Avoor, 60. Chickerkctah

50

Greenway. For the first time in 1801, the judicial function of the Collector was

separated and Greenway became the provincial judge and Hepburn was

appointed as the Collector of the zilla of Karunguli (thenceforth called).

The Collector’s office was known as Public House. It was by this time

that the Talook Cutcheries were built at Kanchipuram, Karunguli

(For Madurantakam Taluk) Tirukazhukundram (for Chengalpattu), Trippasore,

Poonamallee, Tinnanore (for Santmagans), Ponneri, Peddapollam,

Salavakkam, Uttiramerur and Cavantandalam.124 These public offices were the

forerunners of the modern Taluk Offices.

In 1806, Hepburn was replaced with Cazalet as the Collector of

Kanchipuram district. During this period, the district consisted of the following

eight taluks: Chengalpattu, Tirupporur, Karunguli, Uttiramerur, Kanchipuram,

Manimangalam, Reddapalayam and Nayar (Ponneri) Sathiyavedu, hitherto in

the Kanchipuram district was transferred to North Arcot District125 in 1804-

1805. The addition to the above eight taluks was Saidapet in 1835 and

Poonamallee in 1837. These two taluks were carved out of the territory taken

from the taluks of Manimangalam, Peddapalayam and Nayar.126 There was also

a change in the territorial limits of the district. In 1835-36, certain villages were

exchanged between Triuppattur and Wandhavasi taluks of South Arcot district

and Madurantakam taluk of Kanchipuram district. In the same year about nine

124. Extract from the Chengalpattu District Records, Greenway’s Report, 1801, p.36. 125. Banuviah, M., op.cit., p. 9 . 126. Chengalpattu District Records, Vol. 3848, 19 March 1928.

51

villages were transferred from Wallajah taluk to Kanchipuram taluk. In 1860-

61 also, there were territorial readjustments between Kanchipuram and

Wallajah taluks. In 1850-51, a portion of the Sathiyavedu taluk (transferred to

North Arcot in 1804-05) was transferred to Ponneri (Nayar) taluk and in 1860,

the remaining portion of Sathiyavedu taluk was merged with Tiruvallur taluk.

For administrative convenience exchange of villages was also effected between

Madurantakam taluk of Kanchipuram district and Tindivanam taluk of South

Arcot district and between Ponneri taluk and Sudur taluk (Nellore district) in

1858-59.

Another remarkable event which deserves mention in the history of

Kanchipuram district administration is its merger with the district of

Madras Town in the year 1859-60. But the merger did not last long and in

1870, they were separated as before.127

In nurturing and shaping the district administration in the beginning, the

British Officers and Collectors who, besides Place, Greenway and Hepburn,

played vital role, were Smalley, Babiregton, Barnard, Misbet, Cunliff, Viveash,

Maclean, Freese, Ellis, Banbury and others.

Changes in the Administration between 1835-1860

In 1835, there were nine taluks in the district which became 10 in 1837

when Poonamallee taluk was formed. The eleventh taluk was Tiruvallur,

carved in 1858-59 out of a portion of former Sathiavedu taluk.

127. Charles Stewart, Crole, op.cit., p.281

52

In the year 1860, there was a taluk re-organisation in the Presidency and

as a result, the 11 taluks of Kanchipuram district were reconstituted into six

.The Table 1-1 shows the the newly reorganized taluks.

Table-1-1

Reorganised Taluks in Kanchipuram District

Sl.No. New taluks created

Taluks merged Headquarters of the new Taluks

1.

Madurantakam Karunguli Uttiramerur

Madurantakam

2.

Sriperumpudur Kancheepuram Manimangalam

Sriperumpudur

3.

Chengalpattu Chengalpattu Tirupporur

Tirukkazhukundram

4.

Saidapettai Saidapettai Poonamallee

Saidapettai

5.

Tiruvallur Peddapalaiyam Sathiavedu

Tiruvallur

6. Ponneri Nayar Ponneri

In the subsequent years, Sriperumpudur taluk, which comprised the old

Kanchipuram and Manimangalam taluks was renamed as Kanchipuram taluk

with Kanchipuram as its headquarters and Sriperumbudur along with

Uttiramerur, Poonamallee and Sathiyavedu became headquarters of Deputy

Tahsildars. The headquarters of Chengalpattu taluk was also shifted from

Tirukazhukundram to Chengalpattu.

Position in 1900s

The position of the district administration in 1900’s was that the

Collector having his headquarters at Saidapettai was assisted by a Sub-

53

Collector128 and two General Deputy Collectors, six Tahsildars129 for six taluks

and five Deputy Tahsildars for five sub taluks.130The Sub-Collector and the

General Deputy Collectors were the heads of the revenue divisions of

Chengalpattu, comprising the taluks of Chengalpattu, Madurantakam and

Kancheepuram; Saidapettai comprising the taluks of Saidapettai and Ponneri

and Tiruvallur comprising the lone taluk of Tiruvallur.

Later in 1911 when Sriperumpudur sub-taluk was upgraded as a full-

fledged taluk, the fourth revenue division was formed with headquarters at

Kanchipuram having jurisdiction over the taluks of Kanchipuram and

Sriperumpudur.

In 1946, the district lost about 5735 sq.miles of its area to the Madras

district when a part of Saidapet taluk including the town of Saidapet was

annexed to it.

On the eve of 1951, there were four revenue divisions in the district,

viz., Kanchipuram, (Kanchipuram and Sriperumpudur taluks), Chengalpattu

(Chengalpattu and Madurantakam taluks), Saidapettai (Saidapettai and Ponneri

taluks) and Tiruvallur (Tiruvallur taluk). Consequent on the separation of

judiciary from executive, the revenue divisions were delimited in the district,

which brought the district under two revenue divisions of Tiruvallur and

128. Maclean, C.D., op.cit., Vol.I., p.65 . 129. Banuviah, M.,op. cit., p.21 . 130. Maclean, C.D., op.cit., Vol.III, p. 174.

54

Chengalpattu while the Saidapettai and Kanchipuram divisions were done

away with. 131

But in 1956, the two revenue divisions i.e., Saidapettai and

Kanchipuram were revived which continue till present day. The following

Table 1-2 shows the revenue divisions and their jurisdictions.

Table-1-2

Revenue Divisions and Their Jurisdications in Kanchipuram District

Name e of the Revenue Divisions Name of Taluks comprised in the Division

Tiruvallur Tiruvallur Tiruttani Pallipattu Uthukottai

Chengalpattu Chnegalpattu Madurantakam

Cheyyur Saidapettai Saidapettai

Ponneri Gummidipoondi

Kanchipuram Kanchipuram Sriperumbudur Uttiramerur

132

Changes after 1951

In 1951, the district had seven taluks, viz., Chengalpattu, Kanchipuram,

Sriperumbudur, Saidapettai, Maduraritakam, Ponneri and Tiruvallur and two

131. Chengalpattu, Kanchipuram, Madurantakam, Ponneri, Saidapettai and Tiruvallur Kanchipuram, Uttiramerur, Poonamallee, Sriperumpudur and Sathiyavedu.

132. Census of India, 1961, Report, Madras, Vol.IX, op.cit., p.2.

55

sub-taluks of Uttiramerur and Uttukottai. In 1960, Gummidipoondi was formed

as a sub-taluk of Ponneri taluk.

Consequent on the implementation of the Ardhra Pradesh and Madras

Alteration of Boundaries Act, 1959, (Pataskar Award) with effect from 1st

April 1960, Tiruttani taIuk and Pallipattu sub-taluk of Chittoor district of

Andhra Pradesh were transferred to Madras (Tamil Nadu) and annexed with

the Chengalpattu district. Tiruttani was formerly a ‘Zamindari Estate’ taken

over by the government on 7th September 1950 and converted into a tatuk.

Later (1975) Gummidipoondi, the sub-taluk of Ponneri taluk,

Uttiramerur (1978), the sub-taluk of Kanchipuram taluk, Uthukkottai133 the

sub-taluk of Tiruvallur (1981) and Pallipattu (1981) the sub-taluk of Tiruttani

were upgraded as full-fledged taluks enhancing the number of taluks in the

district from 8 to 12. The 13th taluk of the district is Cheyyur demarcated by

bifurcating the Madurantakam taluk with effect from 1st July 1986. These 13

taluks exist to the present day.

General Administration

The district administration of India was created by ‘Land Revenue’. The

division of the provinces of India into districts was on account of it.134 In the

133. The present Uthukkottai taluk was known as Pennalurpet Sub-taluk, under the charge of an independent Deputy Tahsildar. The Headquarters of the taluk was shifted from Pannalurpel to Uthukkottai in 1969 and it became a full-fledged taluk with effect from 1 August 1981.

134. Ruthnasamy,M., Some Influences mat made the British Administrative System in India, LUZAC & CO., London, 1939, p.321.

56

Madras Presidency, Chengalpattu, the Jahir became a separate district,

Northern Circars were conquered and subsequently divided into districts.

Salem, the Nilgiris, Coimbatore and Dindigul were secured as such from Tipu

Sultan. Madurai, a large territory was later divided into Madurai and Ramnad.

Trichy was ceded by the Nawab and Thanjavur was acquired from the Maratha

King. Most of these districts, after independence, owing to heavy

administrative duties and responsibilities, were bifurcated or trifurcated.

Revenue Department

The General administrative machinery of a district is responsible for

discharging a multitude of functions mostly regulatory in nature. The wide

range of administrative functions mainly cover land and water management,

levy and collection of government dues, land reforms, tenancy reforms, survey

and maintenance of land records, recording and compilation of cultivation and

other basic statistics, control and distribution of essential commodities, welfare

of the weaker section, debt relief, emergency relief, grant of variety of licences

and permits, election, census, maintenance of law and order and other residual

works which cannot be brought within the purview of the other departmental

officials of the district.

As the revenue department is responsible for the general administration

of the district, there was a move to redesignate the revenue department as

‘Revenue and General Administration Department’. But the move was dropped

as it was thought that the redesignation would neither be going to increase its

57

status nor would the public know any new fact which they were already aware

of .135

District Administration -The Collector

The Collector is the representative of the State in the district. The

governance of the district, not merely the collection of revenue, was in the

hands of the revenue officials. For long, the revenue administration was the

only concern of the government in the district. The evolution of the office of

the Collector and his assistants in the revenue administration shows what the

revenue administration did for the government of the district.136 In the Madras

Presidency, the Collector had been not only Collector and Magistrate but also

Judge in revenue matters. The Collectors in the Madras Presidency were in

1852, found to have higher responsibilities and more substantial powers than

their counterparts in the Bombay Presidency. In 1888, the Collectors in the

Madras Presidency were relieved of the work of the headquarters division

which was given over to a Deputy Collector. 137

But after independence, the role of the Collector in the district

administration has undergone several changes. The nature, content and

priorities of work have also been changing from time to time. His style of

working has also changed. Authoritarian postures are resented. Apart from his

135. Ambrose, S.P., One Man Commission Report on District Revenue

Administration, Government of Tarnil Nadu ,Madras, 1980, p.4. 136. Ibid., p.31 137. W.S.Meyers Report on District Administration, Calcutta, 1904,pp.3-7;

Ruthnasamy, M., op.cit., p.324.

58

ability to coordinate all developmental activities in the district and to control

and direct the revenue official towards efficient performance, the Collector

should be able to get the co-operation of the people and their leaders in all

spheres of activity. The increase in population and urgency to provide

minimum needs to the people, the pressure on land and water, demand for

goods, and services, outstripping the availability, growing unemployment,

increase in law and order problems, increased responsibility to protect and

uplift the weaker sections of the people, co-ordination and management of all

welfare, development and regulatory functions, have all made the work of the

Collector difficult and complex. The Collector is constantly under pressure. He

is obliged to intervene and use his position and influence in all matters which

are not his direct responsibility. The Collector’s priorities of works have

changed. Important items of Revenue work do not figure in his priority list.

They are largely the direct responsibilities in the district administration. The

revenue and other departmental officials in the district are responsible for the

general administration of the district

The Collectorate

In the Collectorate, District Revenue Officer and Personal Assistants are

there to assist the Collector in his multifarious duties. In order to relieve the

Collector of his heavy and arduous responsibilities, government have created,

in the year 1960, the post of District Revenue Officer to look after a great deal

59

of revenue and routine work on general administration.138 The Collector and

the District Revenue Officer are assisted by Personal Assistants, who exercise

authorities under the power delegated to them by general or special orders. The

ministerial staff of the Collectorate include the Sharishtadar and Assistants.

Grievance Day and Mass Contact Programme

‘Grievance Day’ and ‘Mass Contact Programme’ were instituted by the

government in order to expedite the disposal of representations and grievances

of the rural public and also give them an opportunity to meet the officials of

different levels on appointed dates and to hear their grievances in person. In the

district, every Monday is observed as Grievance Day. The Collector, Revenue

Divisional Officers and the Tahsildars are to remain at their Headquarters on

this day to receive representations and petitions from the people and to initiate

steps to redress their grievances at once.

“The Mass Contact Programme or Manurieedhi Thittam requires a team

of officials of different departments who deal with the rural public to visit the

village in each revenue firka on the 5th of every month. An officer not below

the of a Deputy Tahsildar is to head the team of officials. On receipt officials,

the head of the team investigates and lakes decisions or makes suitable

recommendations to the department concerned the same day.

138. G.O.No.3090, Public (Special) Department,19 December 1959 ;G.O.No.1434, Public (Special) Department, 25 June 1962

60

Divisional Administration

The revenue divisions of the district are headed by the Revenue

Divisional Officers who discharge many substantial original works under

various Acts, Regulations and Standing Orders. In executive hierarchy, he

assists the District Collector in the proper implementation of the policies and

programmes of the government. He is the Sub-Divisional Magistrate

responsible for the maintenance of raw and order in the revenue division. Since

independence, the duties and responsibilities of the Revenue Divisional Officer

have undergone major changes. With the separation of judiciary from the

executive, the Revenue Divisional Officer shed his judicial functions. At that

time, many revenue divisions were abolished. In Kanchipuram district,

Kanchipuram and Saidapettai revenue divisions were abolished. But on the

recommendations of the District Revenue Administration Enquiry Committee,

the government ordered the restoration of the divisions in 1956. The Revenue

Divisional Officers were supervising the Panchayat administration in the

division prior to 1974 when the functions were entrusted to the Divisional

Development Officers, which posts were newly created.

Taluk Administration

The Taluk Office occupies a very important position in the general

administration of the taluk. Tahsildars are in charge of revenue and general

administration at taluk level who are assisted by headquarters deputy tahsildars

and other deputy tahsildars. Since the year 1990 government have appointed

61

zonal deputy tahsildars to each zone which comprises two or more firkas. The

Zonal Deputy Tahsildars have been empowered to issue necessary certificates

to the public. The general public are much benefited by the scheme since they

do not have to go to taluk offices, for the certificates they need.

Firka Administration

Below the taluk, Firka or Zone is the administrative division, the

administrative officers being the zonal deputy tahsildar and revenue inspector.

Their primary functions are to supervise the work of the Village Administrative

Officers, administer cultivation, attend to collection of revenues, ensure that

the village accounts are properly maintained and in all matters referred to him

by the tahsildar, he has to inspect enquire and send reports.

Village Administration

Villages were under the administration of the part time village officials,

village headmen and village Karnams. Since the part time system of village

administration did not suit the present administrative set-up, the government

abolished the system with effect from 14th November 1980 and the new posts

of full time village officials with the designation, Village Administrative

officers were created, combining the duties of the erstwhile-village headman

and karnam. When candidates were recruited for the new posts of village

administrative officers, preferences were given to the former village headmen

and karnams who had the required qualification. The rest of the erstwhile

62

village headmen and karnams were also rehabilitated as bill collectors in local

civic bodies.

Each revenue village in Kanchipuram district is having a village

administrative officer. These officers are responsible for collection of land

revenue, maintaining village accounts, recommending issue of various

certificates and reporting law and order problems to the tahsildars.139

Village Organisations

The decline of the Village Organisations seems to have begun during the

Mussulman invasions of the earlier part of the Fourteenth Century and in the

conquests of the Vijayanagar monarchs in the latter half of the same century.140

When the Vijayanagar kings entrusted the administration of the Tamil country

to the Nayak Generals, the features of local self government continued as

before in different divisions of the Tamil Country. The ancient kingdoms of

Chera, Pandya, Chola and Pallava fell into the hands of weak monarchs who

bifurcated the dominions into fragments and entrusted them to petty Viceroys

and Chieftains according to their whims and fancies. They, in turn, created a

number of principalities and gave them away to their subordinates in return for

military service. These developments took place during the Sixteenth and

Seventeenth Centuries and it was during this period that the old institutions lost

much of their glory though they did not die out altogether. But ancient

139. Report received from the Special Commissioner and Commissioner for

Administration, Madras, 4 June 1992, pp.1-3. 140. Price, J.F., The Private Diary of Anandarangam Pillai, Vol.I, Madras, 1914,

pp.322-323.

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community spirit does not seem to have disappeared together inspite of many

changes even as late as the Eighteenth Century. Also there is an instance of a

Village meeting to consider a case of discretion of village temple in which

people of all castes took part in the whole proceedings.141

At the beginning of the Nineteenth Century, however, the village

communities began to disintegrate. But some of the features of local

administration were still retained with their original form in the Kanchipuram

territory of the Tamil Country. Later, various economic and administrative

changes introduced by the British rule almost hastened the decay of these

institutions. It was the inevitable result of the establishment of an orderly

government, internal tranquility and suppression of external aggression and the

growth of the means of communication that the isolation of the villages was

broken and the villages were brought into more direct and intimate contact with

the State. Attempts were no doubt made to resuscitate the Village every now

and then but the British Rulers were all hesitant, half hearted and halting and it

was not before the Royal Commission of Decentralization which issued its

report in 1909, that the importance of the Millage came to be recognized.

Again, it was in 1920 a real beginning was made to revive the Panchayats and

the remnants of the ancient Local Administration.

When Madras Presidency was formed in 1801 by the great efforts of the

British Governor-General Wellsley, the general administration of the local

141. Ibid.

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divisions was toned up. The district administration was placed on a sound

basis. The principle of Local Self Government was first adopted in

Kanchipuram by the introduction bf the Municipal Act of the year 1867. For

administrative efficiency, this district was divided into 10 taluks before 1860

A.D.The following Table-1-3 shows these taluks

Table-1-3

Taluks in Kanchipuram Before 1860

Sl.No Taluks Headquarters

1 Karunguli Madurantakam

2 Uttiramerur Uttiramerur

3 Kanchipuram Kanchipuram

4 Manimangalam Sriperumbudur

5 Chenaglpattu Tirukalikunram

6 Tiruporur Tiruporur

7 Saidapet Saidapet

8 Poonamallee Poonamalle

9 Pedapolliemand

Sattyavedu

Tiruvallur

10 Nayer Ponneri

Later, these taluks were reduced to six with taluk headquarters in the

same places. The Table-1-4ahows the reduced taluks in the Kanchipuram

district

65

Table-1-4

Reduced Taluks in Kanchipuram District

Sl.No Taluks Headquarters

1 Saidapet Saidapet

2 Tiruvallur Tiruvallur

3 Ponneri Ponneri

4 Chengalpattu Chengleput

5 Madurantakam Madurantakam

6 Kanchipuram Kanchipuram

142

The emergence of the Local Boards in India during the British rule

signifies the matured development of political ideas and their fruition. The

duties of the Local Boards over most of the activities upon whiqh the essential

welfare of the country depends. They are responsible for the public health of

the people. They have the care to check factors that are affecting the public

health; they control elementary education; they construct and maintain local

buildings and communications; they also touch the life of the people at every

point.143

142. Charles Stewart Crole, op.cit., p.9. 143. Resolution of the Government of India on Local Self Government,1915 ;

Venkatarangaiya, M., The Development of Local Boards in the Madras Presidency, Bombay, 1938,p.1

66

Inauguration of Panchayat Unions in Kanchipuram District

According to the Government Order No.2013, (L.A.), dated on 28th

November 1959, first batch of Panchayat Unions were inaugurated on

2nd October 1960 in Thirukkalikundram, (Manamathi, Thirukkalikundram and

P.V.Kalathur firkas) Uthiramerur (Uthiramerur, Magaral (South) and

Salavakkam firkasi Sriperumbudur, Maduramangalam, Sriperumbudur),

(Sarpanjeru and Kunnathur firkas), Poonmallee (Poonamallee) Tiruvallur

(Pandur Tiruvallur firkas) and Kadambattur( Mappedu and Pandur firkas).

These six are the first batch of Panchayat Unions formed in Kanchipuram

district during this period.144

Second batch of Panchayat Unins were inaugurated on 4th April 1961.

They are Uthukkottai (comprising Kannagaipair, Uthukkottai and Valliyur

firkas, Madurantakam (Vaiyavur and Madurantakam firkas) St.Thomas Mount

(Saidapet and Pailikaranai firkas), Minjur (Minjur, Kattur, Ponneri and

Tirupalaivanam firkas), Kattankolathur (Guduvancheri and Chengalpattu

firkas), Kanchipuram (Kanchipuram and Magaral firkas), Poondi (Pennalurpet,

Velliyur, Tiruvallur and Pandur firkas), Gummidipoondi (Gummidipoondi

firkas - Part of Eguvarpalayam firka Madurpakkam firka) and Villivakkam

(Villivakkam and Aminjikarai firkas) .145

144. Guide Book of Panchayat Development in Madras State, Rural and Local Administration Department, Government of Madras, Madras, 1961,p.80

145. Ibid., p.83.

67

The rest of the Panchayat Unions namely Wallajabad, Tirupporur,

Acharappakkam, Chittamur, Lathur, Puzhal, Sholavaram, Ellapuram, Tiruttani

Tiruvalangadu, R.K.Pet and Pallipet were the last batch of Panchayat Unions

inaugurated on 2nd October 1961.146

The Tamil Nadu Panchayats Act enacted in 1958 delineated the powers

of the Village Panchayats and Panchayat Union Councils at the Block level.

Similarly at the District level, District Development councils were set up under

the enactment which was made as an advisory body as recommended by the

Balwantrai Mehta Committee under the Chairmanship of the District Collector.

The Presidents of the Village Panchayats become members of the Panchayat

Union and similarly the Chairman of all the Panchayat Unions became the

members of the District Development Council. This wholesome feature was

slightly altered when the Tamil Nadu Panchayats Act 1958 was amended later,

to provide for the direct election of Panchayat President and Union Chairman.

There were 1192 Village panchayats, 47 town panchayats and

27 panchayat unions in Kanchipuram district. When the Panchayats in the

District were dissolved, the Union Commissioners were appointed as Special

Officers of the Panchayats to exercise the powers of the Presidents and perform

the functions of the Panchayats.

Kanchipuram Revenue district has two Development District, four

Development Divisions viz., Kanchipuram, Chengalpattu, Tiruvallore and

146. Ibid., p.88.

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Saidapet. Besides, there is a District Rural Development Agency at

Kanchipuram, headed by a Project Officer.

Out of 1192 village panchayats, the annual income of 230, panchayats is

less than Rs.5000/- and 306 have an annual income between Rs.50001- and

10,000/- only. 656 panchayats can be said to be viable, their annual income

being more than Rs.10,000/-. Kanchipuram district covers an area of 7920

sq.km. and has a coast-line of 225 km. with the Bay of Bengal. The District

Headquarters is at Kancheepuram. The district comprises 13 taluks, 27 blocks

and 2227 villages. It also has nine municipal towns and three municipal

townships.

The total population of the district is 36.06 lakhs as per 1981 Census of

which males constitute 18.45 lakhs and females 17.61 lakhs. The rate of

literacy in the district is 48 per cent the rate being higher than males which is

64 per cent and lower than females which works out to 36 per cent. Rural

population of the district is 22.08 lakhs suggesting a strong rural orientation of

the district economy. The population of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled

Tribes is 9,47,789 and 46,050 respectively and both together constitute about

27.48 per cent of the total population.

The Panchayat Raj scheme initiated in this state on 2nd October 1960,

has been successfully carried on since its inception. Many of the initial

drawbacks and shortcomings noticed in its functioning have been progressively

overcome. The three Tier Local Government institutions-Village Panchayats,

69

Panchayat Union Councils and District Development Councils are also

functioning satisfactorily. The financial resources of Panchayats and Panchayat

Unions have been taken care of by vesting in them the power to levy specific

impose to increase their income for discharging their responsibilities and

enlarge the developmental activities which are relatively the more important

aspects of the scheme of democratic decentralisation which will certainly go a

long way to improve the rural economy. Further funds are made available

under the “Community Development Programme Schematic Budget” for

Blocks, under the broad heads, health, education and medical relief,

development of communication, rural industries, housing and the welfare of the

socially and economically depressed sections of the population. Special

allocations are made for minor irrigation, including digging of wells, provisions

of tube wells and soil conservation from the additional grants, besides

agricultural development, which is the basic constituent of rural prosperity and

development. In course of time, some panchayats by virtue of their significant

development are elevated to the higher categories.

The Panchayats embarked on certain notable development schemes also

within their jurisdiction. There has been an increase in the house tax collection

by the panchayats which is evidenced by the fact that the house tax matching

grant is paid at the rates equal to the tax collected by them. They have also

undertaken plantation of fuel and fruit bearing trees as remunerative enterprises

to augment their resources.

70

The election for the local bodies held in Tamil Nadu in February 1986

was significant. Previously, the Chairmen were elected indirectly by the

members of the Panchayat Union Councils. It was in this election, held in

September1986, that for the first time in the history of the Local Bodies

Election in Tamil Nadu, the Chairman of the Panchayat Unions were elected

direct by the people and the political parties were allowed to sponsor their

candidates. 147

The Village and Town Panchayats are headed by the Presidents.

Previously, the Presidents of Village Panchayats were elected by the members

of respective panchayats who were elected from their wards. The Presidents are

now elected by the people. Since the Election for the Local Bodies held in

1967-Vice-Chairman for each Village and Town Panchayat is elected from

among the members of the Council. There are also certain wards reserved in

each panchayat for being filled up by members belonging to SC/ST and also by

women representatives.

147. Gopalakrishnan, M., op.cit., pp. pp.1259-1260.