Chapter 9 - The Development of Academic Motivation

Chapter 9 - The Development of Academic Motivation

Tom SturmPam AguilarNicki Robl

Personal Interest in MotivationAs Secondary School teachers we

are interested in motivation because of the dip that occurs in the early teenage years.Literacy scores drop, students begin

to draw back from their interest and motivation in education.This is a difficult and necessary

time where valuable skills are learned.

Why does academic motivation decline with increasing grade in school?

Two Reasons:1.As students progress through the elementary years their responses and thinking about reinforcements and punishments change. 2.In addition, reinforcement possibilities change as children mature.

Pressley & McCormick, 262

Self efficacy is the feeling a student has about his/her learning abilities.

Self-efficacy is one of the best predicators of a student’s academic success.

So how do we promote or influence self-confidence in students?


Influences of Self-Efficacy

Social models - students in a peer group have similar attitudes of abilities, thus tend to emulate their peers.

Opinion of others – the opinion of your peer group has a high influence on your self-efficacy

Feedback – in response to one’s own effort has greater affect on self-efficacy than teacher or peer

“big fish little pond syndrome” – students are more likely to have lower self-efficacy when they are in ability level grouping


Development of Self-Efficacy Beliefs By the middle and upper

elementary grades students become more aware of their failures and successes

Once a student begins to believe in their own abilities or lack of abilities it is difficult to change their perception of themselves as learners

Outcomes: the apathy in higher grade levels has been developing over a number of years


Matching Academic Tasks to Student Competencies

Remember Vygotsky’s theory about the zone of proximal development?If a student finds a task too difficult they will

become frustrated and likely give upBut if teachers scaffold academic tasks

appropriately students will more likely succeed

Build on students’ knowledge to construct learning goals


Self-Efficacy and Expectancy-Value TheoryExpectancy –value theory predicts

students’ performance relative to potential

What does that mean?Students are more likely to take on

learning when they expect to perform well.

Critical assumption: “students both expect and value academic success.”


Attributions of Success and Failure Students often rationalize their

success or failures. Their explanations are called attributions.

Efforts: I studied all night for the exam or I hardly studied for the exam

Abilities: I suck at math therefore, I bombed the test

Task Factors: the test was easy so I passed

Luck: I got lucky on the test so I passed!


Attributions, Learning Difficulties, and Learning Disabilities

Students with learning disabilities/difficulties are more likely to attribute their lack of success in school to their perceived low ability?

If students with learning difficulties or disabilities believe that their learning is tied to effort they are more likely to do well in school.

Learned helplessness is the feeling that one cannot improve one’s performance

So how does attribution affect students with learning disabilities/difficulties?

Pressley & McCormick, 266-267

Turn-Talk

So how can teachers promote high self-efficacy in students with learning disabilities/difficulties?

Attribution, Learning Difficulties, and Learning Disabilities Build on previous knowledgeCarefully scaffold skillsWarning: be careful not to coddle

students too much because they may associate their academic success with your help rather than their own learning ability


So think about it…………..

“Next time you are tempted to praise your students’ intelligence or talent, restrain yourself. Instead teach them how much fun a challenging task is, how interesting and informative errors are, and how great it is to struggle with something and make progress. Most of all teach them that by taking on challenges, making mistakes, and putting forth effort, they are making themselves smarter” (Dweck, 2008).

Developmental Differences in Attributions “How do children’s attributions

explain the increasing tendency with advancing grade in school not to like things academic.”

“Why is it that with increasing age during the elementary and middle school years, feelings of learning helplessness in response to failures increases?”


Attribution Retraining Attribution Retraining is aimed at teaching

students that their failure may be due to method they used to approach the problem, not a reflection of their academic abilities. Students are taught to see value in the strategies they

learn, to see them as tools that can help improve their performance.

Learning becomes less punitive, more of a development. Student begin to see that they can succeed, but in order to do so

they just need the right skills. (Self-efficacy)

Developmental Differences in Attributions When students are younger they think

effort and ability are equal. As students mature and become

more self-aware they begin to differentiate between effort and ability.

So as students advance in grades they begin to attribute academic failures with low ability

Here’s where learned helplessness comes into play. Students see that academic achievement is tied to ability, thus they don’t try as a means to rationalize their learning outcomes.


Classroom Competition

So is classroom competition good for nurturing self-efficacy? Why or why not?

Short answer: NO! Encouraging classroom competition fosters ego involvement.

Undermines student achievement because students interpret success with high ability and failure with low ability

Students will avoid trying if they think the outcome is failure

As students mature they become more aware of the implications of competing (success or failure)


Alternative to Competition

Emphasize doing better than previously instead of doing better than other students

Try to foster a task oriented classroom vs. a ego –involved classroom

Task involved classroom, promote the process of learning instead of outcomes of learning (e.g. grades/awards).

Demonstrate learning outcomes in a variety of ways.

Pressley & McCormick 271

Other Characteristics of Classrooms that Undermine Achievement Secondary schools are physically

larger than elementary schools and therefore more imposing

Middle and high school teachers are firmer and less flexible

Difficult to form relationships with secondary teachers because secondary teachers have so many more students


Views of Intelligence

A student’s view of his/her own intelligence is a determining factor in their motivation to learn.

Entity theory of intelligence is the belief that intelligence is fixed. For example, either you’re born smart or born dumb. Students who hold this belief are more likely to have negative feelings when they fail.

Incremental theory of intelligence is a belief that intelligence is malleable. Students who hold this belief are more likely to associate achievement with effort and continue to try even despite failures.


Section 2: Promoting Motivation in School

(Berliner & Casanova, 107 )

Promoting Motivation in Schools

As teachers, it is important to set up a classroom in which a student can feel motivated to learn.

In order to feel motivated, a learner must feel a sense of self-efficacy over their education. To feel motivated to learn students must:

Think a task is worth accomplishing.Feel capable of succeeding.Sense that there is something gained

by accomplishing the task.

Keys to Promoting Motivation in School

Through purposeful planning, these needs can be addressed through: Cooperative Learning Attribution Retraining Utilizing Student Interests Conceptualizing Your

Possible Self

Cooperative Learning In cooperative learning situations students work together to

work towards a common goal. In this type of learning setting, everyone is held accountable to the

learning. They are responsible for their own and other’s success. The sense of not wanting to let their group down gives a sense of

purpose to their learning.

(Marzano & Pickertin & Pollack, 85-86)

Characteristics of Cooperative Learning

Positive Interdependence The group will succeed or fail together

Face-to-Face Promotive Interaction Students help each other learn and encourage each

member to succeed. Students are more likely to share in the small group

setting.

Individual and Group Accountability Everyone has to contribute in order for the group to reach

its goals.

Group Processing The group has to reflect upon how well they are functioning,

and what they can do to become better.

(Pressley & McCormick, 275-276)

Benefits of Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning: Promotes better learning and more motivated learners than

individual based or competitive based settings. Individual-The individual's learning has no effect on others. Competitive-The learner attempts to beat others.

Increases learning regardless of demographics. People learn from each other and benefit from other’s ideas

and perspectives.

Produces Positive Social Effects Including: Increased self-esteem Fosters positive feelings towards school Develops acceptance of others Promotes the development of interpersonal skills

(Marzano & Pickering & Pollack,87-88 )

Creating Cooperative Learning Groups

Groups should not be homogenous based upon their ability levels. High-Ability with Medium-Ability, Medium-Ability with Low-Ability

Addresses Zone of Proximal Development

Groups should be small in size (3-4 students) to ensure everyone participates.

Use group rewards and individual accountability to give incentive to work together.

Try to keep groups gender/ethnically balanced.

Monitor group interactions to ensure all students have an opportunity to learn.

(Pressley & McCormick, 282 )

Nurturing the Possible SelfPossible Self is a simple method of

showing that students have some control over their futures. It is a valuable tool in putting a value on

one’s education.

“What am I going to be in 10 years?”This is a question that helps students to

begin to form an idea of what their goals and expectations for themselves are. Having attainable dreams can be a great

motivator for students.

Nurturing the Possible Self“How will I get there?”

Possible Selves help students to put their learning into a specific context as they ask themselves, “How is this going to help me reach my goal?” This helps the students see that they can

control their future with the effort that they put into what they do.

Students will begin to see the value of putting in effort now for dividends in their future.

(Dewey, 31)

The Interest Effect

In The Child and the Curriculum, John Dewey stated that “the lack of any organic connection with what the child as already seen and felt and loved makes the material purely formal and symbolic”

Students need to feel a connection to what they learn in school so they can truly form an understanding.

To do so, we should access students’ prior knowledge to provide a context for the material, and to spark an interest based upon what they already know.

Students pay closer to and learn better when they identify something as interesting. This increase in learning is not just tied to the attention and

effort being displayed.

(Pressley & McCormick, 284 )

Implications for Teachers We need to help develop connections

between the content and our students.

This can be done through:1. Offer meaningful choices to the students.

Choose books, Project Ideas, Areas of Study2. Be selective in the texts used in class.

Look for good texts that will appeal to the students interests

3. Utilize the students’ prior knowledge in our teaching.

Set the stage, KWL, Assess Interests4. Encourage students to become active

learners. Ask questions, pursue interests, Socratic

Seminars.

(Pressley & McCormick, 283)

Role of the Teacher in

Increasing Motivation

Support your Students! Show that you believe they can accomplish each task.

Help students feel they are in control of their achievement.

When students feel control, they feel a personal connection to completing it, instead of just being forced to do it for someone else.

Keep each task within the Zone of Proximal Development.

Teachers send message that the student must self regulate in order to meet their goals. Student is put in control of their ability to succeed.

Conclusions Through the way that we set up our

classroom, we can empower students to take control of their learning. Cooperative Learning groups foster

accountability to the self and group.

Attribution Retraining teaches students that they can succeed if they develop the right strategies to use.

Thinking about the possible self allows the student to identify their goals and realize that they have the power to achieve them.

Section3:Contextual Determination of Academic Motivation

Bronfenbrenner

Ecological systems theory- Development is a result of interaction between and among environments. Children impact environment as much as environment impacts them.

www.news.cornell.edu/.../Bronfenbrenner.ssl.html

Pressley & McCormick, 284-285

Motivation towards schooling is determined by what happens outside of school as well as insideMicrosystem: children’s proximal environment (community, school, church, immediate family)Macrosystem: children’s more distant environmental factors (culture)

gozips.uakron.edu/~susan8/devparch/theorists.htm

Mircosystem:Family Matters!Parents who are-

AcceptingProvide adequate supervisionGrant autonomy when appropriateInvolved in schoolEffective disciplinariansMarriedMentally healthy

Will have more academically motivated children and can even influence their children’s friends to be more

academically motivated.Pressley & McCormick, 286

Microsystem:Friends Matter!

Children who have better peer relations are more likely to be motivated in school.

With increasing age peers have increasing effects on motivation


Microsystem:School Matters! Schools that provide

Strong administrative leadership High expectations Safe but not rigid environment Shared sense of purpose (by students, staff and parents) Fair Discipline Community and parental involvement Teachers that care Recognition of accomplishments (by teachers and students) Strong leadership that solves problems(Teachers and

administrators feel they control and solve problems)

Are likely to be highly motivating for students


Macrosystem Affects motivation by directly affecting

elements of children’s microsystem. Can have positive or negative effects on

motiviation.Examples

Culture Japanese students equate success with effort and thus

families support effort in school Costa Rican culture holds teachers in high regard and

thus families support teachers and school more causing increased motivation

Economy Parental levels of employment High school students after school jobs Parental happiness/level of stimulation Time spent by parents at their job


Beyond Social Theory

Biology can play a role in motivationChildhood illnessEarly maturation

Can have negative effects on academic motivation


Finally, the individual

A child’s personality can have effects on whether or not they are academically motivated when combined with outside influences.


What should teachers do?

Be aware of cultural contexts that influence motivation

Work to create motivating school environment (see slide 6 or “Considering Interesting Questions” box 9.5,Pressley & McCormick, 289)

Encourage positive peer interactions

“We need to correct the harmful idea that people simply have gifts that transport them to success, and to teach our students that no matter how smart or talented someone is--be it Einstein, Mozart, or Michael Jordan--no one succeeds in a big way without enormous amounts of dedication and effort. It is through effort that people build their abilities and realize their potential. More and more research is showing there is one thing that sets great successes apart from their equally talented peers--how hard they’ve worked.

Last Words

(Ericsson, et al., 2006, as cited in Dweck, 2008).

Work CitedBerliner, David C. & Casanova, Ursula (1993). Putting Research to Work In Your

School. New York, NY: Scholastic Inc.

Dewey, John (1902). The Child and the Curriculum. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.

Dweck, C. (2008). Brainology: Transforming students’ motivation to learn. Independent School, 67(2), 110-119. Retrieved November 14, 2008, from the HW Wilson/Education Full text database.

Marzano, Robert J. & Pickering, Debra J. & Pollock, Jane E (2001). Classroom Instruction that Works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

McCormick, Chrstine B & Pressley, Michael (2007). Child and Adolescent Development for Educators. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

National Association of Independent Schools. (2008). You can grow your intelligence: new research shows the brain can be developed like a muscle. Retrieved November 14, 2008, from http://www.independentschools.org.

Chapter 9 - The Development of Academic Motivation

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