Chapter 9:Chapter 9:

Gender StratificationGender Stratification

What to Expect in This What to Expect in This Chapter...Chapter... The Concepts of Sex and GenderThe Concepts of Sex and Gender Viewpoints on the relation between men Viewpoints on the relation between men

and womenand women Theories of Gender InequalityTheories of Gender Inequality Gender Role SocializationGender Role Socialization Gender Inequality and WorkGender Inequality and Work

The Concepts of Sex and The Concepts of Sex and GenderGender SexSex refers to the physical and biological refers to the physical and biological

attributes of men and womenattributes of men and women– These attributes are anatomical, hormonal, These attributes are anatomical, hormonal,

chromosomal, and physiological in naturechromosomal, and physiological in nature GenderGender refers to the social, psychological and refers to the social, psychological and

cultural attributes of masculinity and cultural attributes of masculinity and femininity, many of which are based on femininity, many of which are based on biological distinctionsbiological distinctions– Gender includes people’s self image and Gender includes people’s self image and

expectations for behavior among other thingsexpectations for behavior among other things Generally, sex is considered to be an Generally, sex is considered to be an ascribedascribed

status while gender is an status while gender is an achievedachieved status status

Viewpoints on the Relation Viewpoints on the Relation Between Males and FemalesBetween Males and Females

Historical Views on Males and Historical Views on Males and FemalesFemales

Historically, women have been viewed Historically, women have been viewed as inferior to men, both in the east and as inferior to men, both in the east and in the westin the west

Auguste Comte, founding father of Auguste Comte, founding father of sociology, believed that women were sociology, believed that women were physically and mentally inferior to menphysically and mentally inferior to men

Comte believed that women should not Comte believed that women should not work outside the home, own property, work outside the home, own property, or hold political poweror hold political power

Religious Views on Males Religious Views on Males and Femalesand Females

Many of the major religions of the world have Many of the major religions of the world have characterized men as superior to women:characterized men as superior to women:– ChristianityChristianity– JudaismJudaism– IslamIslam– HinduismHinduism

Some interpretations of the religious texts of Some interpretations of the religious texts of these religions has given rise to a these religions has given rise to a patriarchal patriarchal ideologyideology, the belief that men are naturally , the belief that men are naturally superior and should control all important superior and should control all important aspects of societyaspects of society

Biological Views on Males Biological Views on Males and Females and Females

Supporters of the view that male and Supporters of the view that male and female attributes are biologically female attributes are biologically determined provide evidence from two determined provide evidence from two sources:sources:– Studies of animals, especially primates such Studies of animals, especially primates such

as monkeys and apesas monkeys and apes– Studies of physiological differences Studies of physiological differences

between men and women between men and women

The study of animal behavior is known as The study of animal behavior is known as ethologyethology

Ethologists have observed a number of Ethologists have observed a number of general patterns among primates:general patterns among primates:– Male dominanceMale dominance– Sexual division of laborSexual division of labor

SociobiologistsSociobiologists extend this understanding extend this understanding to explain human behavior to be the result to explain human behavior to be the result of genetic differences between males and of genetic differences between males and femalesfemales

Critics assert that learning plays a much Critics assert that learning plays a much larger role than sociobiologists allow larger role than sociobiologists allow

Studies of PrimatesStudies of Primates

Studies of Physiological Studies of Physiological Differences Between Men Differences Between Men and Womenand Women

Recent studies have found that men Recent studies have found that men and women are variable susceptible to and women are variable susceptible to different types of diseases different types of diseases

Studies also find that men and women Studies also find that men and women tend to react very differently to stresstend to react very differently to stress

It is not entirely clear how much these It is not entirely clear how much these differences are due to genetic and differences are due to genetic and other biological factors and how much other biological factors and how much to cultural and environmental factorsto cultural and environmental factors

Gender and DiseaseGender and DiseaseDiseaseDisease Gender Most AffectedGender Most Affected

Heart AttackHeart AttackMen more likely to suffer heart attacks and Men more likely to suffer heart attacks and cardiovascular disease; Heart attacks are cardiovascular disease; Heart attacks are more fatal in womenmore fatal in women

CancerCancerSecond leading cause of death for women: Second leading cause of death for women: lung cancer heads the list followed by breast lung cancer heads the list followed by breast cancercancer

OsteoporosisOsteoporosis Women are primarily affected by this diseaseWomen are primarily affected by this disease

Immunologic Immunologic DiseasesDiseases

Affect women much more than men: Affect women much more than men: Autoimmune thyroid diseases 15:1; Autoimmune thyroid diseases 15:1; rheumatoid arthritis 3:1rheumatoid arthritis 3:1

Mental DisordersMental Disorders Mental illness is twice as high among womenMental illness is twice as high among women

Alzheimer’s Alzheimer’s DiseaseDisease

This disease is higher among women and This disease is higher among women and increases greatly after age 85increases greatly after age 85

Visual/Hearing Visual/Hearing ImpairmentsImpairments

Men are 50% more likely to experience these Men are 50% more likely to experience these symptomssymptoms

Sociological ViewSociological View

A pioneering work in focusing our A pioneering work in focusing our attention on cultural factors was Margaret attention on cultural factors was Margaret Mead’s Mead’s Sex and TemperamentSex and Temperament– Mead found evidence of widely varying roles Mead found evidence of widely varying roles

for males and females in the three cultures she for males and females in the three cultures she studiedstudied

– Mead’s research has come under some Mead’s research has come under some criticism and should be interpreted cautiouslycriticism and should be interpreted cautiously

Subsequent research generally supports Subsequent research generally supports the idea that men are much more the idea that men are much more aggressive and are involved in hunting aggressive and are involved in hunting and other more aggressiveand other more aggressive aspects of aspects of community lifecommunity life

Margaret Mead

1901-1978

Theories on Gender Theories on Gender InequalityInequality

Functionalist Theory on Functionalist Theory on Gender InequalityGender Inequality

Functionalists suggest that since women give birth and Functionalists suggest that since women give birth and nurse a child, it is natural that they will take care of it nurse a child, it is natural that they will take care of it in other waysin other ways

These duties lead to a natural division of labor, in which These duties lead to a natural division of labor, in which women are more involved in domestic activities such women are more involved in domestic activities such as preparing meals and maintaining a homeas preparing meals and maintaining a home

Men, therefore are left to engage in breadwinning Men, therefore are left to engage in breadwinning activities and other economically dominant rolesactivities and other economically dominant roles

Parsons and Bales refer to the roles of men and women Parsons and Bales refer to the roles of men and women as as instrumental rolesinstrumental roles and and expressive rolesexpressive roles respectively respectively

Conflict Theory on Gender Conflict Theory on Gender InequalityInequality

Focuses on why gender inequality persists, Focuses on why gender inequality persists, even though men and women are not tied to even though men and women are not tied to traditional roles as might have been the case in traditional roles as might have been the case in earlier timesearlier times

Suggests that men continue to dominate Suggests that men continue to dominate women because of their greater control over women because of their greater control over economic, political and social resourceseconomic, political and social resources

Because there is no incentive for those in power Because there is no incentive for those in power to give up this control, these arrangements to give up this control, these arrangements persist far beyond their functional necessitypersist far beyond their functional necessity

Cultural Study:Cultural Study:Honor and ShameHonor and Shame Who takes the credit?Who takes the credit? Who takes the blame?Who takes the blame?

How are concepts of honor and shame How are concepts of honor and shame expressed in your culture?expressed in your culture?

How is a shameful act dealt with? How How is a shameful act dealt with? How is honor restored to the family is honor restored to the family reputation?reputation?

Are credit and blame shared equally Are credit and blame shared equally across gender lines?across gender lines?

Gender Role SocializationGender Role Socialization

Gender role socializationGender role socialization is “...a is “...a lifelong process whereby people learn lifelong process whereby people learn the values, attitudes, motivations, and the values, attitudes, motivations, and behavior considered appropriate to behavior considered appropriate to each sex by their culture”each sex by their culture”

Gender role socialization takes place Gender role socialization takes place from earliest childhood through from earliest childhood through adolescence and throughout all social adolescence and throughout all social interactions in which we participateinteractions in which we participate

Gender Role Socialization Gender Role Socialization in Childhoodin Childhood

From the time we are born we are From the time we are born we are being socialized along gender linesbeing socialized along gender lines– Girls wear pink, have bonnets and Girls wear pink, have bonnets and

ribbons, are allowed to cry, and are ribbons, are allowed to cry, and are caressed more than boyscaressed more than boys

– Boys wear blue, are expected to be Boys wear blue, are expected to be strong, and not allowed to crystrong, and not allowed to cry

This socialization takes place not This socialization takes place not only by parents but also by only by parents but also by siblings, peers, schools and the siblings, peers, schools and the mass mediamass media

Gender Role Socialization Gender Role Socialization in Adolescencein Adolescence

Adolescence is a critical time for Adolescence is a critical time for establishing gender identityestablishing gender identity– Girls are encouraged to be passive Girls are encouraged to be passive

and less achievement orientedand less achievement oriented– Boys are encouraged to be Boys are encouraged to be

competitive, autonomous and competitive, autonomous and independentindependent

Because gender roles are Because gender roles are changing in the culture at large, changing in the culture at large, adolescence can be even more adolescence can be even more uncertain with regard to gender uncertain with regard to gender identity than it once wasidentity than it once was

Gender Differences in Gender Differences in Men and WomenMen and Women

Research shows that men and women experience Research shows that men and women experience the world differentlythe world differently– Men have a sense of autonomy, that they can Men have a sense of autonomy, that they can

accomplish what they set out to doaccomplish what they set out to do– Women feel more limited in the control they have over Women feel more limited in the control they have over

their futuretheir future Men and women also tend to think and reason Men and women also tend to think and reason

differentlydifferently– Men tend to be decisive, rational and firmMen tend to be decisive, rational and firm– Women tend to consider “gray areas,” recognize Women tend to consider “gray areas,” recognize

complexities, and are more concerned about the feelings complexities, and are more concerned about the feelings of others which often comes across as indecisiveof others which often comes across as indecisive

Gender Inequality and Gender Inequality and WorkWork

More than 60% of American women are in the More than 60% of American women are in the paid labor forcepaid labor force

In 1999, women earned approximately 77% of In 1999, women earned approximately 77% of what men didwhat men did

Even within occupational categories, and Even within occupational categories, and controlling for educational level, women earn controlling for educational level, women earn significantly less than mensignificantly less than men

Women experience discrimination on the job in Women experience discrimination on the job in three ways:three ways:– During the hiring process, they are given jobs with During the hiring process, they are given jobs with

lower prestigelower prestige– Through unequal wage policiesThrough unequal wage policies– Promotional practicesPromotional practices

Women’s Median Pay as Women’s Median Pay as Percentage of Men’s: 1890-Percentage of Men’s: 1890-19991999

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1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999