Chapter 8

Group Processes

What makes up a group?

What is a Group?

• A set of individuals who have at least one of the following characteristics:– Direct interactions with each other over a period

of time

– Joint membership in a social category based on sex, race, or other attributes

– A shared, common fate, identity, or set of goals

Why Join a Group?

• The complexities and ambitions of human life require that we work in groups

• Humans have an innate need to belong to groups

• May not only protect against physical threat, but also help gain personal and social identity

• Gossip is Grooming Theory of Language

Group RolesIt is essential to match roles to each member’s characteristics and skill set – Figure 8.1

Individuals in Groups:The Presence of Others

Social Facilitation:When Others Arouse Us

• How does the presence of others affect our behavior?

• Triplett’s (1897-1898) fishing reel studies.• Later research found conflicting findings.

– Sometimes the presence of others enhanced performance.

– At other times, performance declined.• What was going on?

I need a volunteer to… shoot some hoops

Why Does Social Facilitation Occur?

• Zajonc’s Mere Presence Theory

• Evaluation Apprehension Theory– It’s not just about presence– They must be in a position to evaluate– Blindfold study (Cottrell et al., 1968)

Why Does Social Facilitation Occur? (cont’d)

• Distraction Conflict Theory– Dividing attention between task, arousal, and

performance– Maintains there is nothing uniquely social

about “social” facilitation

• Which theory is correct?

Will one person clap…

Ok…now everyone

People will cheer louder when they cheer as part of a group than when they cheer alone.

Answer: False… Let’s see why!

Putting Common Sense to the Test…

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0KpoqynjV1g

Social Loafing: When Others Relax Us

• Ringelmann (1880s): Individual output declines on pooled tasks.

• Social Loafing: A group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks in which contributions are pooled.

Figure 8.4: Social Loafing: When Many Produce Less

Adapted from Jackson & Williams, 1985; Sanna, 1992.

Ever been part of a team that didn’t work together?

Ever been part of a group that just wasn’t effective?

When Is Social-Loafing Less Likely to Occur

• People believe their own performances can be identified and thus evaluated, by themselves or by others (e.g., look around the room and make sure every one is doing this with us)

• The task is important or meaningful to those performing it (e.g., …so every one can hear us)

• People believe that their own efforts are necessary for a successful outcome

When Is Social- Loafing Less Likely to Occur? (cont’d)

• The group expects to be punished for poor performance

• The group is small• The group is cohesive

– Cohesiveness – factors that bring a group closer together (e.g., threat by an outgroup)

Why Does Social Loafing Occur?

Collective Effort Model: Individuals try hard on a collective task when they think their efforts will help them achieve outcomes they personally value.

Collective Effort Model: It Has to Be Personal

Collective Effort Model: It Has to Be Personal

Collective Effort Model: It Has to Be Personal

Collective Effort Model: It Has to Be Personal

Collective Effort Model: It Has to Be Personal

Deindividuation

The loss of a person’s sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against

deviant behavior.

• A collective phenomenon that only occurs in the presence of others

• What can lead to deindividuation?

Environmental Cues

• Accountability cues affect the person’s cost-reward calculations.

• Attentional cues focus a person’s attention away from the self.

Two heads are better than one.

Answer: False… Let’s see why!

Putting Common Sense to the Test…

Brainstorming

A technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by encouraging

group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or others’ contributions.

Brainstorming

You are a doctor faced with a patient who has a malignant tumor in his or her stomach. It is impossible to operate on the patient, but unless the tumor is destroyed the patient will die. There is a special type of ray that can be used to destroy the tumor, as long as the rays reach the tumor with sufficient intensity. However, at the necessary intensity, the healthy tissue that the rays pass through will also be destroyed and the patient will die. At lower intensities, the rays are harmless but they will not affect the tumor either. What procedure might the doctor employ to destroy the tumor with the rays, at the same time avoiding destroying any healthy tissue? (Duncker, 1945)

In groups of three discuss possible solutions to solve this

problem.Let’s try another story…

Table 8.3: Brainstorming in Groups: Problems and Solutions

Problem Solving by Analogy

A general is attacking a fortress. He can’t send all his men in together as the roads are mined to explode if large numbers of men cross them. He therefore splits his men into small groups and sends them in on different roads. (Duncker, 1945)

Electronic Brainstorming

Table 8.3: Why Electronic Brainstorming is Effective

Conflict: Cooperation and Competition Within Groups

Social Dilemmas

Situations in which a self-interested choice by everyone creates the worst outcome for

everyone

What is good for just you is bad for all.

Figure 8.9: The Prisoner’s Dilemma

Large groups are more likely than small groups to exploit a scarce resource that other members collectively depend on.

Answer: True… Let’s see why!

Putting Common Sense to the Test…

Resource Dilemmas• Social dilemmas concerning how two or

more people share a limited resource.

• Two types of resource dilemmas:– Commons dilemma– Public goods dilemma

Common DilemmasHow much would you take of a resource that is not renewable (as much as you could, as much as everyone else, only as much as you needed?)

Common DilemmasHow much would you take of a resource that is not renewable (as little as you needed, as much as everyone else, as much as you could?)

Public Goods DilemmasHow much do you feel obligated to pay into these

things on a daily basis?

Ok…Let’s take a 10 minute break

Then back to Chapter 7