Chapter 8: Language and Thought

The Cognitive RevolutionCognition: Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge.19th Century focus on the mind

IntrospectionBehaviorist focus on overt responses

arguments regarding incomplete picture of human functioning

Empirical study of cognition – 1956 conferenceSimon and Newell – problem solvingChomsky – new model of languageMiller – memory (7 +/-2)

Language: Turning Thoughts into Words

Properties of LanguageSymbolic: Use sounds/words to represent objectsSemantic: MeaningGenerative: Limited number of symbols can be combined & generate infinite combinationsStructured: Rules that govern how you can arrange sentences

The Hierarchical Structure of Language

• Phonemes = smallest speech units– 100 possible, English – about 40

• Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning– 50,000 in English, root words, prefixes, suffixes

• Semantics = meaning of words and word combinations– Objects and actions to which words refer

• Syntax = a system of rules for arranging words into sentences– Different rules for different languages

Language Development: Milestones

• Initial vocalizations similar across languages– Crying, cooing, babbling

• 6 months – babbling sounds begin to resemble surrounding language

• 1 year – first word– similar cross-culturally – words for parents– receptive vs. expressive language

Overview of Typical Language Development

Language Development:Milestones Continued

• 18-24 months – vocabulary spurt, receptive vocab (understanding) is greater then productive vocab (spoken).– Fast Mapping: map a word onto an understanding

concept after 1 exposure – Overextension: incorrectly use words to describe

similar objects (ball: anything around)– Underextension: incorrectly use words to narrower set

of objects (doll: their favorite doll)

Language Development:Milestones Continued

• End of second year – combine words – Telegraphic Speech: omitting words that are less

critical (Give Doll)– Mean Length of Utterance (MLU): average length of

spoken statements (morphemes)

• End of third year – complex ideas, plural, past tense– Overregularization: grammar rules are incorrectly use

(I goed to sleep)

• 4-5 years old- formal training in writing– Metalinguistic Awareness: to reflect on the use of

language (coming up with jokes)

Bilingualism:Learning More Than One Language

• Research findings:– Smaller vocabularies in one language, combined

vocabularies average– Higher scores for middle-class bilingual subjects on

cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, selective attention, and metalinguistic awareness

– Slight disadvantage in terms of language processing speed

– 2nd languages more easily acquired early in life– Acculturation: how much a person is socially &

psychologically integrated into a new culture facilitates acquisition

Age and second language learning

Can Animals Develop Language?

• Dolphins, sea lions, parrots, chimpanzees– Vocal apparatus issue– American Sign Language

• Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1969)– Chimpanzee - Washoe– 160 word vocabulary

• Sue Savage-Rumbaugh– Bonobo chimpanzee - Kanzi– Symbols– Receptive language – 72% of 660 requests

Theories of Language Acquisition

• Behaviorist – Skinner

• learning of specific verbal responses

• Nativist– Chomsky

• learning the rules of language• Language Acquisition Device (LAD): innate mechanism that

facilitates learning of language (biologically)

• Interactionist – Cognitive, social communication, and biological theories

Interactionist theories of language acquisition

Thinking

Thinking refers to mental activities used to reason or reflect

• Mental Representations: representations of knowledge & thought. Two type:

1) Analogical: the representation has some of the qualities

of the thing it represents

2) Symbolic: the representation has none of the qualities of

the thing it represents

Thinking

• Visual Imagery: representations of sensory experience that occur in the brain w/out the presence of sensory input.

• Concept Formation: mental classification of objects & events based on common features

1) Concept: a class or category w/ individuals or subtypes (birds)

2) Prototype: the best example of a concept (sparrow)

•

Problem Solving: Types of Problems

• Greeno (1978) – three basic classes• Problems of inducing structure

– Series completion and analogy problems

• Problems of arrangement– String problem and Anagrams

• Often solved through insight

• Problems of transformation– Hobbits and orcs problem– Water jar problem

Six standard problems used in studies of problem solving

The tower of Hanoi problem

Effective Problem Solving• Well defined vs. ill defined problems

• Barriers to effective problem solving:– Irrelevant Information– Functional Fixedness: to see an item for only

its most common use– Mental Set: when people use problem solving

strategies that have worked in the past– Unnecessary Constraints

Approaches to Problem Solving• Problem Space: the set of possible pathways to a

solution considered by the problem solver.• Algorithms: method, step by step procedure in

searching for a solution– Trial-&-Error: trying possible solutions & discarding

those that don’t work until you find a solution.

• Heuristics: “rule of thumb” – Shortcuts– No guaranteed solution

• Forming subgoals• Working backward• Searching for analogies• Changing the representation of a problem

Culture, Cognitive Style,and Problem Solving

• Field dependence – relying on external frames of reference

• Field independence – relying on internal frames of reference– Western cultures inspire field independence– Cultural influence based in ecological demands

Decision Making: Evaluating Alternatives & Making Choices

• Framing: the way a problem is posed affects the perception of how

• Theory of Bounded Rationality: people use simple strategies that focus on a few facts of available option which leads to irrational decisions (Simon)

• Making Choices– Additive strategies: list positives of two things– Elimination by aspects

Application of the additive model to choosing an apartment

Taking Chances• Risky Decision Making: making choices

under uncertain conditions– Expected Value: engage in activity only if we

except to win or gain something. (gambling)– Subjective Utility: represents what an

outcome is personally worth to a person (having insurance)

– Subjective Probability: personal estimates of probabilities if actual probability is not available.

Heuristics in Judging Probabilities

• Availability Heuristic: estimating the probability based on instances that come to mind

• Representativeness Heuristic: estimates the probability based on how similar it is to a typical prototype

• Tendency to Ignore Base Rates: pg 326 • Conjunction Fallacy: people estimate the odds of 2

uncertain events happening together are greater then happening alone

• Alternative Outcomes Effect: beliefs about outcomes change depending how the info is presented

The Conjunction Fallacy

Understanding Pitfalls in ReasoningAbout Decisions

• Reasoning: the determination of the conclusions that can be drawn from examples or assertions1) Inductive

Reasoning: the construction of conclusions

from particular examples

2) Deductive Reasoning: the process of deciding

whether a conclusion can be drawn from the premises or facts

• The gambler’s fallacy• Overestimating the improbable• Confirmation bias and belief perseverance• The overconfidence effect