Chapter 7:Chapter 7:

Social Stratification and Social ClassSocial Stratification and Social Class

What to Expect in This What to Expect in This Chapter...Chapter... What is Social Stratification?What is Social Stratification? Social MobilitySocial Mobility Stratification SystemsStratification Systems Dimensions of StratificationDimensions of Stratification Theories of StratificationTheories of Stratification Social Class in the United StatesSocial Class in the United States Poverty in the United StatesPoverty in the United States Consequences of Social StratificationConsequences of Social Stratification

What is Social What is Social Stratification?Stratification?

Social stratification is Social stratification is “...the division of society “...the division of society into levels, steps or positions”into levels, steps or positions”

Stratification is, in essence, the Stratification is, in essence, the structured structured inequalityinequality of entire categories of people of entire categories of people

Stratification is different than mere Stratification is different than mere inequalityinequality, , which refers to the uneven distribution of which refers to the uneven distribution of opportunities and rewards to individuals and opportunities and rewards to individuals and groups.groups.

When these inequalities becomes structured When these inequalities becomes structured into society and passed on from generation to into society and passed on from generation to generation, we have social stratificationgeneration, we have social stratification

Social MobilitySocial Mobility

Social mobilitySocial mobility refers to the movement of refers to the movement of persons or groups from one social stratum to persons or groups from one social stratum to anotheranother

Social mobility is more possible in Social mobility is more possible in open open societiessocieties which provide greater opportunities which provide greater opportunities for mobility, than in for mobility, than in closed societiesclosed societies which fixes which fixes one’s position at birthone’s position at birth

Sociologists distinguish between several types Sociologists distinguish between several types of mobilityof mobility

Types of Social MobilityTypes of Social Mobility

Direction of MovementDirection of Movement

AcrossAcross Up or DownUp or Down

Horizontal MobilityHorizontal Mobility Vertical MobilityVertical Mobility

Time Frame for MobilityTime Frame for Mobility

Single GenerationSingle Generation Two or More GenerationsTwo or More Generations

Intra-generational Intra-generational MobilityMobility

Inter-generational Inter-generational MobilityMobility

Factors Affecting Social Factors Affecting Social MobilityMobility

Sociologists have identified several Sociologists have identified several structural-level factors which impact the structural-level factors which impact the likelihood of social mobilitylikelihood of social mobility• Economic ConditionsEconomic Conditions

• Number of people in the workforceNumber of people in the workforce

• Values and educational levelValues and educational level

Types of Stratification Types of Stratification SystemsSystems

Caste systemsCaste systems are very rigid, are very rigid, closed systems of stratification closed systems of stratification based on ascribed characteristics based on ascribed characteristics such as skin color or family such as skin color or family identityidentity

Estate systemsEstate systems are also closed are also closed systems based largely on systems based largely on inheritanceinheritance

Class systemsClass systems are open systems are open systems that permit meaningful social that permit meaningful social mobilitymobility

Dimensions of Social Dimensions of Social StratificationStratification

Wealth—Wealth—the economic assets of an the economic assets of an individual, including income, individual, including income, monetary assets and other holdingsmonetary assets and other holdings

PowerPower—the ability to attain goals and —the ability to attain goals and maintain influence over others, even maintain influence over others, even in the absence of their consentin the absence of their consent

Prestige—Prestige—the approval and respect the approval and respect received from other members of received from other members of societysociety

Prestige Rankings of Prestige Rankings of Various OccupationsVarious Occupations

OccupationOccupation ScoreScorePhysicianPhysician 8686

College ProfessorCollege Professor 7878

LawyerLawyer 7272

High School TeacherHigh School Teacher 6666

SociologistSociologist 6565

Police OfficerPolice Officer 6060

Social WorkerSocial Worker 5252

CarpenterCarpenter 4343

Sales ClerkSales Clerk 2929

Garbage CollectorGarbage Collector 1313

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Theories of Stratification: Theories of Stratification: Functionalist TheoryFunctionalist Theory

You will remember that functionalist theory You will remember that functionalist theory understands society as a “system” or “organism”understands society as a “system” or “organism”

As functionalists, Kingsley Davis and Wilbert As functionalists, Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore contended that stratification was a Moore contended that stratification was a necessity for society because:necessity for society because:• Society has numerous positions that must be fulfilled if Society has numerous positions that must be fulfilled if

it is to function properlyit is to function properly• Some positions, however are more important for the Some positions, however are more important for the

maintenance of society (e.g., physicians)maintenance of society (e.g., physicians)• Finally, some positions require special talents that are Finally, some positions require special talents that are

not generally prevalent in the populationnot generally prevalent in the population Hence, functionally important positions and/or Hence, functionally important positions and/or

positions requiring rare talent are rewarded most positions requiring rare talent are rewarded most highlyhighly

Criticisms of Functional Criticisms of Functional TheoryTheory

Ex Post Facto Judgment of Functional Ex Post Facto Judgment of Functional Importance of PositionsImportance of Positions• Critics question the functional importance of Critics question the functional importance of

certain highly rewarded positions such as certain highly rewarded positions such as actors and sports figures, in contrast to actors and sports figures, in contrast to positions such as school teachers or social positions such as school teachers or social workersworkers

The Stratification System itself Inhibits The Stratification System itself Inhibits Talent and AbilitiesTalent and Abilities• Many barriers are placed in the way of Many barriers are placed in the way of

individuals from lower classes to keep them individuals from lower classes to keep them from competing effectivelyfrom competing effectively

Theories of Stratification: Theories of Stratification: Marxist Conflict TheoryMarxist Conflict Theory

Suggests that social stratification is Suggests that social stratification is determined by the the determined by the the relations of relations of productionproduction• bourgeoisie--bourgeoisie--capitalists who own the capitalists who own the

means of productionmeans of production• proletariat--proletariat--wage laborers who sell their wage laborers who sell their

labor to bourgeoisielabor to bourgeoisie Interests of these two classes are Interests of these two classes are

intrinsically opposedintrinsically opposed• Power of the capitalists allows them to Power of the capitalists allows them to

impose their will and realize their interestsimpose their will and realize their interests• According to Marx, the proletariat will According to Marx, the proletariat will

eventually develop a eventually develop a class consciousnessclass consciousness, , and ultimately overthrow the capitalistsand ultimately overthrow the capitalists

Comparing Functional and Conflict TheoriesComparing Functional and Conflict TheoriesFunctional TheoryFunctional Theory Conflict TheoryConflict Theory

Stratification is universal, necessary Stratification is universal, necessary and inevitableand inevitable

Stratification is universal, but not Stratification is universal, but not necessary or inevitablenecessary or inevitable

The social system shapes the The social system shapes the stratification systemstratification system

The stratification system shapes the The stratification system shapes the social systemsocial system

Stratification arises from societal need Stratification arises from societal need for integration and coordinationfor integration and coordination

Stratification arises from group Stratification arises from group competition and conflictcompetition and conflict

Stratification facilitates the optimal Stratification facilitates the optimal functioning of societyfunctioning of society

Stratification impedes the optimal Stratification impedes the optimal functioning of societyfunctioning of society

Stratification is an expression of Stratification is an expression of commonly shared social valuescommonly shared social values

Stratification is an expression of the Stratification is an expression of the values of powerful groupsvalues of powerful groups

Power is distributed legitimately in Power is distributed legitimately in societysociety

Power is distributed illegitimately in Power is distributed illegitimately in societysociety

Tasks and rewards are allocated Tasks and rewards are allocated equitablyequitably

Tasks and rewards are not allocated Tasks and rewards are not allocated equitablyequitably

The economic dimension is subordinate The economic dimension is subordinate to other dimensions of societyto other dimensions of society

The economic dimension is paramount The economic dimension is paramount in societyin society

Stratification systems generally change Stratification systems generally change through evolutionthrough evolution

Stratification systems change through Stratification systems change through revolutionrevolution

Social Class in the United Social Class in the United StatesStates Sociologists are not agreed as to how Sociologists are not agreed as to how

social classes should be distinguishedsocial classes should be distinguished Most commonly, 5 classes are identified:Most commonly, 5 classes are identified:

• Upper ClassUpper Class• Upper-Middle ClassUpper-Middle Class• Lower Middle ClassLower Middle Class• Working ClassWorking Class• Lower ClassLower Class

Each of these classes represent differences Each of these classes represent differences in both income and lifestyle characteristicsin both income and lifestyle characteristics

Occupational and Educational Correlates of Social ClassOccupational and Educational Correlates of Social ClassSocial ClassSocial Class OccupationOccupation EducationEducation

Upper ClassUpper Class

Corporate Ownership;Corporate Ownership;

Upper-Echelon Upper-Echelon Politics;Politics;

Honorofic positions Honorofic positions

Liberal Arts education Liberal Arts education at elite schoolsat elite schools

Upper-Middle ClassUpper-Middle ClassProfessional and Professional and technical fields; technical fields; managers; proprietersmanagers; proprieters

College and graduate College and graduate school trainingschool training

Lower-Middle ClassLower-Middle Class

Clerical and sales; Clerical and sales; small business small business owners; semi-owners; semi-professionalsprofessionals

High School; some High School; some collegecollege

Working ClassWorking ClassSkilled and Skilled and semiskilled manual semiskilled manual labor; crafts; foremenlabor; crafts; foremen

Some or all of high Some or all of high schoolschool

Lower ClassLower Class

Unskilled labor; Unskilled labor; service work; farm service work; farm labor; private labor; private household workhousehold work

Some or all of high Some or all of high school school

Income Distribution Across the Income Distribution Across the Social ClassesSocial Classes

QuintileQuintile Average IncomeAverage Income Percentage of All Percentage of All IncomeIncome

Wealthiest 5%Wealthiest 5% $142,021 +$142,021 + 21.5%21.5%

Wealthiest Quintile Wealthiest Quintile (20%)(20%)

$79,372 +$79,372 + 49.4%49.4%

Fourth QuintileFourth Quintile $50,520 - $79,374$50,520 - $79,374 23.2%23.2%

Third QuintileThird Quintile $32,000 - $50,519$32,000 - $50,519 14.9%14.9%

Second QuintileSecond Quintile $17,196 – 31,999$17,196 – 31,999 8.9%8.9%

Poorest QuintilePoorest Quintile Less than $17,196Less than $17,196 3.6%3.6%

PovertyPoverty

Approximately 12 million people officially Approximately 12 million people officially live in povertylive in poverty

As explained on the following several As explained on the following several slides:slides:• Poverty does not affect all segments of the Poverty does not affect all segments of the

population equallypopulation equally• There is disagreement among social There is disagreement among social

scientists about how to measure poverty, and scientists about how to measure poverty, and hence disagreement about how much poverty hence disagreement about how much poverty exists in the United Statesexists in the United States

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Poverty’s Biggest Victims: Poverty’s Biggest Victims: EthnicityEthnicity

23,6%

22,8%

7,7%

0,0% 5,0% 10,0% 15,0% 20,0% 25,0%

Blacks

Hispanics

Whites

Poverty’s Biggest Victims: Poverty’s Biggest Victims: GenderGender

Female headed families are greatly Female headed families are greatly overrepresented among those in povertyoverrepresented among those in poverty• Female householders without husbands had Female householders without husbands had

average annual income of $average annual income of $23,73223,732 in 1999 in 1999• Male householders without wives had Male householders without wives had

average annual income of average annual income of $37,396$37,396 in 1999 in 1999 This phenomenon has come to be called This phenomenon has come to be called

“the feminization of poverty”“the feminization of poverty”

How Do We Count the Poor?How Do We Count the Poor? The official “poverty index” was The official “poverty index” was

developed by the Social Security developed by the Social Security Administration in 1964Administration in 1964 It was based on earlier studies that found It was based on earlier studies that found

that families of 3 or more people typically that families of 3 or more people typically spent about 1/3 of their budget on foodspent about 1/3 of their budget on food

The poverty index is thus based on the The poverty index is thus based on the annual cost of a frugal but adequate diet x 3annual cost of a frugal but adequate diet x 3

The threshold of poverty will thus The threshold of poverty will thus depend on the number of individuals depend on the number of individuals living in a householdliving in a household

Threshold of Poverty, 1999Threshold of Poverty, 1999Size of HouseholdSize of Household Poverty ThresholdPoverty Threshold1 person (under 65)1 person (under 65)

1 person (over 65)1 person (over 65)

$8,501$8,501

$7,990$7,990

2 people (under 65)2 people (under 65)

2 people (over 65)2 people (over 65)

$11,214$11,214

$10,075$10,075

3 people3 people $13,290$13,290

4 people4 people $17,029$17,029

5 people5 people $20,127$20,127

6 people6 people $22,727$22,727

7 people7 people $25,912$25,912

8 people8 people $28,967$28,967

9 people9 people $34,417$34,417

Myth #1: Myth #1: People are poor because they are lazyPeople are poor because they are lazy• Fact:Fact: About half of the poor are not of working age; most of those About half of the poor are not of working age; most of those

of working age are either working or looking for workof working age are either working or looking for work Myth #2: Myth #2: Most poor people are African-American and most Most poor people are African-American and most

African-Americans are poorAfrican-Americans are poor• Fact:Fact: Most poor people are white; about 28% of African-Americans Most poor people are white; about 28% of African-Americans

are poorare poor Myth #3: Myth #3: Most of the poor are single mothers with childrenMost of the poor are single mothers with children

• Fact:Fact: Female-headed families with children represent about 44% of Female-headed families with children represent about 44% of the poorthe poor

Myth #4: Myth #4: Most people in poverty live in the inner cityMost people in poverty live in the inner city• Fact:Fact: Less than 22% of the poor live in central citiesLess than 22% of the poor live in central cities

Myth #5: Myth #5: Welfare programs are straining federal budgetsWelfare programs are straining federal budgets• Fact:Fact: Only about 14% of the federal budget went to welfare Only about 14% of the federal budget went to welfare

programs in 1996, compared to 43% that went to other social programs in 1996, compared to 43% that went to other social assistance programs such as social security and Medicareassistance programs such as social security and Medicare

Myths About the PoorMyths About the Poor

Consequences of Social Consequences of Social StratificationStratification