Chapter 7: Cognitive Aspects of Personalityokanc/PSK351/PSK351_PDF/07_PSK351... · 2019. 11....
Transcript of Chapter 7: Cognitive Aspects of Personalityokanc/PSK351/PSK351_PDF/07_PSK351... · 2019. 11....
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Chapter 7:
Cognitive Aspects of
Personality
Friedman, H. S., & Schustack, M. W. (2014). Personality: Classic theories and modern research (5th ed.). Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
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Roots in Gestalt Psychology
Human beings seek meaning in their
environments
We organize the sensations we receive into
meaningful perceptions
Complex stimuli are not reducible to the sum
of their parts
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Gestalt Psychology
A Gestalt perceptual figure
Is the triangle
shown in the image
or constructed in
the mind of the
viewer?
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Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory
Life space
◦ All internal and external forces, and their
relationships to one another
◦ e.g., family, religion, work, etc.
Contemporaneous causation
◦ Behavior is caused at the moment of its occurrence
by all the forces acting at that moment
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Field Dependence
Rod-and-Frame Test
Field dependent Field independent
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Field Dependence
Children’s play preference◦ Field independent children favor solitary play
Socialization patterns◦ Field independent people emphasize autonomy over
conformity
Career choice◦ Field independent people prefer technological
occupations
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Field Dependence
Interpersonal distance◦ Field independent people tend to sit farther away
from a conversational partner
Eye contact◦ Field independent people make less frequent and less
prolonged eye contact with a conversational partner
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Schema Theory
Schema
◦ A cognitive structure that organizes
knowledge and expectations about one’s
environment
◦ Determines how we think and act
Script
◦ Schemas for familiar events
◦ e.g., eating at a restaurant
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Categorization
We tend to organize events, objects, and people
into categories
Positive effects of categorization
◦ Quickly understand complex information
◦ Make likely inferences about new things
Negative effects of categorization
◦ Stereotypes
◦ Overlook individuating characteristics
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Control of Attention
We notice salient environmental features and
combine these with our current goals to decide
where to direct our attention
Individual differences in attention
e.g., attention-deficit disorder
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George Kelly
Personal Construct Theory
◦ People actively endeavor to understand the world and construct their own theories about human behavior
◦ “Every man is, in his own particular way, a scientist” — Kelly
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Kelly: The Role Construct
Repertory Test
Assesses personal construct systems
Think of:
◦ A teacher you liked
◦ Your boss
◦ A successful person you know
Which two are similar? How?
Who is different? How?
Over many triads, the test-taker’s constructs
emerge
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Social Intelligence
Knowledge and skills relevant to interpersonal
situations
◦ Including: empathy, compassion, humor, etc.
◦ Emotional intelligence
◦ Emotion knowledge
Similar to Howard Gardner’s “multiple
intelligences” theory
◦ Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence
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Explanatory Style
A characteristic way of interpreting life events
Optimism and Pessimism◦ Optimistic style is generally associated with better outcomes
◦ Implications for achievement
Learned Helplessness (Seligman)◦ Repeated exposure to unavoidable punishment leads to the
acceptance of avoidable punishment
Cognitive intervention can reduce the depressive effect of pessimism
Learned Optimism
◦ New ways of thinking can be trained
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Julian Rotter
Behavior depends upon outcome expectancyand reinforcement value
Outcome expectancy
◦ Person’s expectation that his or her behavior will be reinforced
Reinforcement value
◦ Value of the expected reinforcer to the individual
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Julian Rotter
Behavior potential
◦ Likelihood that a behavior will be performed in a
particular situation
Generalized vs. specific expectancies and
situations
◦ Generalized expectancies apply to categories of
behaviors and situations (e.g. enjoying parties)
◦ Specific expectancies apply to particular instances of
behaviors (e.g. not enjoying family parties)
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Julian Rotter
Six psychological needs
◦ Recognition-status
◦ Dominance
◦ Independence
◦ Protection-dependency
◦ Love and affection
◦ Physical comfort
Secondary reinforcers
◦ Associated with satisfaction of these needs
Behavior potential, outcome expectancy, and
reinforcement potential all come together to form the
psychological situation.
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Julian Rotter
Locus of control
◦ Beliefs about one’s ability to affect outcomes
◦ Stable individual difference
Internal locus of control
◦ Outcomes are the result of one’s own actions
◦ More achievement-oriented
External locus of control
◦ Believe events are beyond their personal control
◦ Includes components of chance and powerful others
◦ More likely to suffer stress and depression
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Albert Bandura
Self-system◦ The set of cognitive processes by which a person
perceives, evaluates, and regulates his or her own
behavior so that it is appropriate to the environment
and effective in achieving the individual’s goals
◦ The active, cognitive nature of the individual during
learning is critical: Rather than just responding to
direct reinforcement after the fact by altering
behavior in the future, the person can think about and
anticipate the effects of the environment.
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Albert Bandura
How can new behaviors be acquired in the
absence of reinforcement?
Observational Learning
◦ Vicarious learning and modeling
Learning Aggressive Behavior
◦ Bobo doll experiments
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Albert Bandura
Factors that influence modeling:
◦ Outcome expectancy
People are more likely to imitate behaviors that
they believe lead to positive outcomes
◦ Characteristics of the model
Age, gender, status, competence, etc.
◦ Characteristics of the behavior
Simple and salient behaviors
◦ Attributes of the observer
Low self-esteem, dependence, cognitive
development
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Albert Bandura
Processes underlying observational learning
◦ Attention
◦ Retention
◦ Motor reproduction
◦ Motivation
Even when a person has observed and acquired a
behavior, it will be performed when it leads to valued
outcomes and not performed if it is expected to lead to
negative outcomes.
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Albert Bandura
Self-efficacy
◦ A belief abut how competently one will be able to
enact a behavior in a particular situation
Self-efficacy determines:
◦ If we even try to act
◦ How long we persist in our behavior
◦ How success or failure affects future behavior
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Albert Bandura
Self-efficacy is based on:
◦ Past success and failures at similar tasks
◦ Vicarious experiences (seeing others)
◦ Verbal persuasion (by others)
◦ Emotional reactions (how we feel about the behavior)
Self-efficacy is specific to the situation/behavior
◦ Unlike self-esteem, which is global
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Albert Bandura
Self-regulation
◦ People’s control over their own achievements
Setting goals for themselves
Evaluating their success
Rewarding themselves
Includes self-efficacy and schemas
Focuses on internal control of behavior
◦ Intrapersonal approach
◦ Close to social psychological approaches
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Humans as Computers
People as information processors
◦ Similar to how computers manipulate information
Shortcomings of artificial intelligence
◦ Turing Test
◦ Personality is difficult to simulate
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Timeline: Cognitive Approach
Developments in Cognitive Aspects
Societal and Scientific Context
Philosophers and theologians view individual deviations as games of the gods or possession by the devil
Ancient times and Middle Ages
Differences in perceptions seen primarily in religious or philosophical terms
Laboratories studying perception and thinking are founded
1800s Increasing emphasis on reason and rationality, philosophers search for the core of human nature
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Timeline: Cognitive Approach
Developments in Cognitive Aspects
Societal and Scientific Context
Gestalt psychology takes hold in Europe
1900-1930
Experimental Psychology in U.S. is increasingly dominated by behaviorism
Field theory ideas of Lewin and schema ideas of Piaget make their way into American psychology
1930s-1940s
In reaction to world war, increased studies of propaganda, attitudes, and prejudice
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Timeline: Cognitive Approach
Developments in Cognitive Aspects
Societal and Scientific Context
Kelly develops personal construct theory; educators study how children learn
1940s-1950s
Cognitive psychology grows and behaviorism wanes; cybernetics, computers, and enhanced communications
Rotter, Bandura, and others adapt behaviorist approaches into the cognitive framework
1960s-1970
Social psychology thrives; time of social and artistic change and turmoil
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Timeline: Cognitive Approach
Developments in Cognitive Aspects
Societal and Scientific Context
Research on explanatory style, optimism and depression; learning disabilities receive much attention
1970s-1980s
Progress in cognitive psychology; new work roles, coupled with new family structures and fewer extended families
Studies of self-efficacy and of human-computer interactions thrive; self-regulation models develop
1990s Better understandings of the individual in the work place
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Timeline: Cognitive Approach
Developments in Cognitive Aspects
Societal and Scientific Context
Greater integration of cognitive conceptions (intelligence, skill, evaluation) into personality theory
2000s Greater focus on the role of motivation, expectations, social factors in achievement
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Cognitive Approach
Analogy
◦ Humans as scientists and information processors
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Cognitive Approach
Advantages
◦ Explains personality through uniquely human
processes of cognition
◦ Captures active nature of human thought
◦ Differences in cognitive skills are viewed as central to
individuality
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Cognitive Approach
Limits
◦ Often ignores unconscious and emotional aspects of
personality
◦ Some theories tend to oversimplify complex thought
processes
◦ May underemphasize situational influences on
behavior
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Cognitive Approach
View of free will
◦ Free will through active human thought processes
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Cognitive Approach
Common assessment techniques
◦ Decision tasks
◦ Biographical analysis
◦ Attributional analyses
◦ Study of cognitive development
◦ Observation
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Cognitive Approach
Implications for therapy
◦ Uses understanding of perception, cognition,
and attribution to change thought processes
◦ Emotion and behavior can be changed by
changing cognitions