Chapter 6 Other Sensory Systems. Sound and the Ear Humans hear by detecting sound waves Sound waves...
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Transcript of Chapter 6 Other Sensory Systems. Sound and the Ear Humans hear by detecting sound waves Sound waves...
![Page 1: Chapter 6 Other Sensory Systems. Sound and the Ear Humans hear by detecting sound waves Sound waves vary in amplitude and frequency Hearing alerts us.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062309/5697c0121a28abf838ccbfd9/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Chapter 6
Other Sensory Systems
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Sound and the Ear
• Humans hear by detecting sound waves• Sound waves vary in amplitude and frequency• Hearing alerts us to useful information
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
Sound Waves: Stimulus for Audition
• Sound Wave• Periodic compression of air
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
Physical Properties of Sound WavesProperties of Sound-Wave Energy1) Frequency • Number of cycles that a wave completes in a given
amount of time• Measured in Hertz:
• cycles per second• Related to pitch
• Low pitch: low frequency• High pitch: high frequency• Different frequencies
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Physical Properties of Sound Waves
• Most adult humans hear between 20 -20,000Hz• Children hear higher frequencies
• Ability decreases with age and exposure to noise
Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
Physical Properties of Sound Waves2) Amplitude • The intensity/strength of sound wave
• measured in decibels (dB)
• Relates to loudness• Soft sound: low amplitude• Loud sound: high amplitude
• Example of decibels
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
Structure of the Ear
Outer Ear• Pinna
• External structure • funnel sound waves into the ear canal • Helps us locate sounds
• External Ear Canal• Amplifies and directs sound waves to eardrum (tympanic
membrane)
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
Processing Sound Waves
Middle EarBegins with eardrum
• Air-filled chamber that includes the ossicles• Bones in the middle ear:
• Hammer (malleus)• Anvil (incus)• Stirrup (stapes)
• Connects the eardrum to the oval window of the cochlea• Transmits sounds to cochlea
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The Ossicles
Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
Processing Sound WavesInner Ear• Cochlea
• Fluid-filled inner ear structure • receptor cells for hearing (hair cells)• auditory signals converted to action potentials
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Processing Sound Waves
• Basilar membrane• Located in cochlea• Stimulated by staples and creates a wave in the fluid filling the cochlea• Contains about 25,000 fibers
• Fibers vibrate to specific frequencies and stimulate corresponding nerve cells
• We perceive pitch
Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
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Basilar Membrane
Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
Processing Sound WavesInner Ear• Hair Cells
• Sensory neurons embedded on basilar membrane• When moved by waves in the cochlear fluid outer hair cells
stimulate inner hair cells,• Inner hair cells are auditory receptor cells
• Visual of the Hearing Process
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Electron Micrographs of the Hair Cells of Humans
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
Detecting Loudness and Location• Loudness
• Greater amplitude of sound waves causes greater firing rate of cells in the cochlea.
• Ex: Youtube video• This is Spinal Tap
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
Detecting Location• Location
• Cells receive info from both ears and calculate difference in arrival times.
• Superior olivary complex• More difficult to compare inputs when sounds move
toward the middle of the head.• the difference in arrival times is smaller.
• When we detect no difference in arrival times, we infer the sound is coming from directly in front of us or behind us.
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
Detecting Location
• Source of sound is detected by loudness on the left or right side of the head
• High frequency sound waves do not easily bend, the head acts as an obstacle.
• higher frequency sound waves on one side of the head are louder than on the other.
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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Fourth Edition - Chapter 10
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Theories of Pitch Perception
• Place theory• basilar membrane has hair cells sensitive to only one specific frequency of
sound wave
• Frequency theory• basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with sound • causes auditory nerve axons to produce action potentials at the same
frequency
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Pitch Perception• Current pitch theory combines both
• Low frequency sounds best explained by the frequency theory
• High frequency sounds best explained by place theory
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Variations in Sensitivity to Pitch
• “Amusia”• the impaired detection of frequency changes (tone deafness)• Video clip (4 minutes)• thicker than average auditory cortex in right hemisphere but fewer
connections from auditory cortex to frontal cortex
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Variations in Sensitivity to Pitch
• Absolute pitch• (“perfect pitch”) ability to hear a note and identify it• Genetic predisposition • The main determinant is early and extensive musical training• More common among people who speak tonal languages such as Vietnamese
and Mandarin Chinese
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The Auditory Cortex
• Primary auditory cortex (area A1) • Located in the superior temporal cortex
• Area A1 is important for auditory imagery• Hearing in the absence of vision
• Requires experience to develop properly• Axons leading from the auditory cortex are less developed in people deaf
since birth • Damage to A1 does not necessarily cause deafness unless damage extends to the
subcortical areas
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Hearing Loss
• Two categories of hearing impairment• Conductive or middle ear deafness• Nerve deafness or inner ear deafness• Examples of hearing loss
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Tinnitus
• Frequent or constant ringing in the ears• Experienced by many people with nerve deafness• Examples
• Sometimes occurs after damage to the cochlea
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Vestibular Sensation
• The vestibular sense: system that detects the position and movement of the head
• Directs movements of the eye and helps to maintain balance
• The vestibular organ is in the ear and is adjacent to the cochlea
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The Vestibular Organ
• Made up of• two otolith organs
• calcium carbonate particles that push against different hair cells and excite them when the head tilts
• three semicircular canals• filled with a jellylike substance and hair cells that are activated when the head moves
• Action potentials travel to the brain stem and cerebellum
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Structures for Vestibular Sensation
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Somatosensation
• Refers to the sensation of the body and its movements• Includes tickle sensation
• Can’t tickle self• our brain expects the stimulation and generates a weaker
response
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The Somatosensory Cortex
• Aspects of body sensations remain separate all the way to the cortex• somatosensory thalamus sends impulses to different areas of the
somatosensory cortex• Where is this cortex located?
• Damage to the somatosensory cortex can result in the impairment of body perceptions
• Phantom limb phenomenon (13 min.)
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Somatosensory Cortex
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6.3 The Chemical Senses
• The first sensory system of the earliest animals was a chemical sensitivity
• enables a small animal to find food, avoid danger, locate mates
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Taste
• Taste has one simple function – to tell us whether to swallow something or spit it out
• We like sweet tastes even in infancy• We dislike bitter and sour, but will accept in small amounts• We vary in our like of salty flavors
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Taste and Smell• Taste buds
• receptors on the tongue
• Perception of flavor is combo of taste and smell• Taste and smell axons converge in the endopiriform cortex
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Papillae and Taste Buds
• Papillae • structures on tongue that contain the taste buds• may contain up to ten or more taste buds
• Each taste bud contains approximately 50 receptors• Most taste buds are located along the outside edge of the tongue in
humans
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Taste Buds
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Taste Perception – Taste Receptors
• Sweet, sour, salty and bitter, glutamate• Some substances that can modify tastes
• Miracle berries – miraculin
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Mechanisms of Taste Receptors
• The saltiness receptor permits sodium ions to cross the membrane• Results in an action potential
• Sour receptors detect the presence of acids • Sweetness, bitterness, and umami receptors activate a G protein
• Transmits information from outside to inside the cell
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Bitter Receptors
• Bitter tastes are associated with toxic substances• About 25 types of bitter receptors
• sensitive to a wide range of chemicals with varying degrees of toxicity
• sensitive to range of harmful substances, but not highly sensitive to any single one