Chapter 6 Motivating Effectively. The Relationship of Motivation to Performance Motivation...
-
Upload
timothy-williamson -
Category
Documents
-
view
231 -
download
0
Transcript of Chapter 6 Motivating Effectively. The Relationship of Motivation to Performance Motivation...
Chapter 6Chapter 6
Motivating Effectively
The Relationship of MotivationThe Relationship of Motivationto Performanceto Performance
Motivation Performance
Ability
Situation
Fundamentals of MotivationFundamentals of Motivation
• Motivation comes from the Latin movere, “to move”
• Motivation requires:– arousal to initiate behavior toward a goal– direction to properly focus that behavior– persistence to ultimately attain the goal
• The motivation “toolkit” contains:– content or need theories to help us understand what people
want– process theories to understand the motivation process
Some Theories Of MotivationSome Theories Of Motivation
• Need (or Content) Theories– Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
– Alderfer’s ERG Theory
– McClelland’s Manifest Needs
• Process Theories– Learning Theory
– Goal Setting Theory
– Equity Theory
– Expectancy Theory
Understanding Employee NeedsUnderstanding Employee Needs
• A need is something that people require.
• Satisfaction is the condition of need fulfillment
• Motivation is the attempt to satisfy a need.
The Need Satisfaction Process The Need Satisfaction Process (Figure 6-1)(Figure 6-1)
NeedDeficiency
Search forPotential Need-
SatisfyingGoal
Perception ofPotential Need-
SatisfyingGoal
Attempt toAttain Goal
GoalAttainment or
Frustration
Maslow’s NeedsMaslow’s Needs
• Physiological: the need for food, sleep, water, air, and sex
• Security: the need for safety, family, stability, and economic security
• Social or affiliation: the need to belong, to interact with others, to have friends, and to love and be loved
• Esteem: the need for respect and recognition of others
• Self-actualization: the need to realize one’s potential, to grow, to be creative, and to accomplish
Maslow’s Need HierarchyMaslow’s Need Hierarchy
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Social
Security
Physiological
SatisfactionProgression
Maslow’s HypothesesMaslow’s Hypotheses
• Needs cluster into five sets
• Needs at the lowest unsatisfied level are most salient
• A satisfied need is not a motivator
• There is a hierarchy of successive prepotency -- once needs at a given level are satisfied, those at the next higher level become most important
Evidence Concerning Maslow’sEvidence Concerning Maslow’sNeed HierarchyNeed Hierarchy
• People do have a variety of needs which vary in levels of satisfaction and importance.
• For most needs, satisfaction is negatively related to performance.• Satisfaction of lower level needs is generally necessary before higher
level needs become more important.• Other than this, people don’t move up the hierarchy in any predictable
fashion.• It appears that people have two or three distinct sets of needs, not five.• For higher level needs, satisfaction and importance are positively
related.
Alderfer’s Sets of Needs (ERG)Alderfer’s Sets of Needs (ERG)
• Existence -- all forms of material and physical desires
• Relatedness -- all needs involving relationships with significant other persons
• Growth -- All needs involving a person making creative and productive efforts on the self and the environment
Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory
GrowthNeeds
RelatednessNeeds
ExistenceNeeds
Frustration
Regression
Satisfaction
Progression
Differences Between Maslow’s Need Differences Between Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG TheoryHierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Alderfer collapses Maslow’s five levels into three
• Alderfer says growth need strength is positively related to growth need satisfaction
• Alderfer sees a hierarchy only in terms of increasing abstractness
• Alderfer recognizes frustration regression as well as satisfaction progression
McClelland’s Manifest NeedsMcClelland’s Manifest Needs
• Need for Achievement: The need to do well no matter what goal is pursued.
• Need for Affiliation: The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other people.
• Need for Power: The desire to control other people, to influence their behavior, and to be responsible for them.
Characteristics of Individuals withCharacteristics of Individuals withStrong Need for AchievementStrong Need for Achievement
• Desire to attain goals.
• Desire for personal responsibility.
• Desire for quick feedback on performance.
Implications of Need TheoriesImplications of Need Theories
• Different people have different needs structures as well as different needs that may be salient at a given time.
• While satisfaction occurs when needs are met, motivation flows from lack of satisfaction.
• A reward may satisfy multiple needs.
• Needs appear to form two or three clusters.
Implications of Need Theories Implications of Need Theories (Continued)(Continued)
• While most people first focus on existence needs when those needs are not satisfied, it is not possible to say which needs will next become most important.
• Both satisfaction progression and frustration regression are important.
• The top cluster of needs, sometimes called growth needs, behave differently from others.
• It may be possible to develop people’s needs.
The Bottom Line: Need TheoriesThe Bottom Line: Need Theories
AssessEmployeeNeeds
AssessEmployeeNeeds
Identify the MostActive Needsof Employees
Identify the MostActive Needsof Employees
Develop SpecificStrategies toSatisfy ActiveEmployee Needs
Develop SpecificStrategies toSatisfy ActiveEmployee Needs
ImplementStrategies
ImplementStrategies
Evaluatethe Plan
Evaluatethe Plan
Learning TheoriesLearning Theories
• Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior produced by experience.
• Three types of learning:– classical conditioning– operant conditioning– social learning
Classical Conditioning (Figure 6-4)Classical Conditioning (Figure 6-4)
Step 1: Before Conditioning
Bell No Responseand
Food Response (Salivation)Step 2: During Conditioning
Bell Followed byFood Response (Salivation)Step 3: After Conditioning
Food Response (Salivation)
Operant Conditioning (Figure 6-5)Operant Conditioning (Figure 6-5)
Stimulus Response Consequence
Arranging Contingencies to Increase Arranging Contingencies to Increase Desired Behaviors (Figure 6-6)Desired Behaviors (Figure 6-6)
StimulusDesired
ResponsePositive
Consequence
Positive Reinforcement
StimulusDesired
Response
Removal ofNoxious
Consequence
Escape Learning (Negative Reinforcement)
DesiredResponse
Avoidance ofNoxious
Consequence
Avoidance Learning
Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Undesired Behaviors (Figure 6-7)Undesired Behaviors (Figure 6-7)
StimulusUndesiredResponse
Withholdingof Positive
Consequence
StimulusDesired
Response
StimulusUndesiredResponse
PositiveConsequence
Nonreinforcement (Extinction)
Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Undesired Behaviors (Fig. 6-7) ContinuedUndesired Behaviors (Fig. 6-7) Continued
StimulusUndesiredResponse
NoxiousConsequence
or Withholdingof Positive
Consequence
StimulusUndesiredResponse
Punishment
Problems with Use of PunishmentProblems with Use of Punishment
• Managers don’t like to punish others.• Managers may feel constrained from using punishment
because of company policy or threat of reprisal.• Punishment may engender resentment.• Punishment may lead to revenge and retaliation.• Punishment leads to adherence only when the person
administering the punishment is present or monitoring• Others may misinterpret the reasons for punishment.• Punishment may reduce the undesired behavior, but it
doesn’t directly teach a desired behavior.
Desired Properties ofDesired Properties ofReinforcement SchedulesReinforcement Schedules
• Rapid Learning. The schedule should quickly teach desired behaviors.
• High Response Rate. The schedule should have high “bang for the buck” (that is, high levels of motivation at a relatively low cost).
• High Response Stability. The schedule should encourage engaging in desired behaviors on a regular basis.
• Low Extinction Rate. The schedule should ensure that, once a behavior is learned, it will be maintained even if reinforcement is temporarily stopped.
Reinforcement SchedulesReinforcement Schedules
• Continuous reinforcement: every instance of the target behavior is reinforced
• Fixed-interval: a reinforcer is provided at fixed time intervals (e.g., weekly paycheck)
• Variable-interval: a reinforcer is administered randomly around some average interval (e.g., four pop quizzes during semester)
• Fixed-ratio: A reinforcer is provided after every n responses (e.g., bonus for every ten units sold)
• Variable-ratio: A reinforcer is administered on average every n responses (e.g., payoff on slot machine on average of once every ten pulls of handle)
Comparing the Schedules of Comparing the Schedules of Reinforcement (Figure 6-8)Reinforcement (Figure 6-8)
Schedule of Reinforcement
Measure Continuous FixedRatio
VariableRatio
FixedInterval
VariableInterval
LearningRate
Very Fast Fast Slow Very Slow Moderate
ResponseRate
Very Low VeryHigh
Very High Low Moderate
ResponseStability
Very High High High Very Low Low toModerate
ExtinctionRate
Very Fast Fast Very Slow ModeratelyFast
Slow
Some Guidelines for Effectively Using Some Guidelines for Effectively Using Learning Techniques in OrganizationsLearning Techniques in Organizations
• Don’t give the same reward to all.• Recognize that failure to respond has reinforcing
consequences.• Tell a person what behavior gets reinforced.• Tell a person what he or she is doing wrong.• Don’t punish in front of others.• Make the consequences equal to the behavior.• Reinforce behaviors as soon as possible.
The Bottom Line: Organizational The Bottom Line: Organizational Behavior Modification (OBM)Behavior Modification (OBM)
IdentifyTargetBehavior
IdentifyTargetBehavior
ObtainBaselineMeasure of Target Behavior
ObtainBaselineMeasure of Target Behavior
IdentifyAppropriateReinforcer(s)
IdentifyAppropriateReinforcer(s)
Define CriterionLevel of TargetBehavior
Define CriterionLevel of TargetBehavior
Identify anAppropriateSchedule ofReinforcement
Identify anAppropriateSchedule ofReinforcement
Implementthe Plan
Implementthe Plan
Evaluate the Plan(Assess Levels ofTarget BehaviorAgainst Criterion)
Evaluate the Plan(Assess Levels ofTarget BehaviorAgainst Criterion)
Functions of GoalsFunctions of Goals
• Goals let employees know what they are expected to do.• Goals relieve boredom.• Reaching goals and getting positive feedback leads to
increased liking for the task and satisfaction with job performance.
• Attaining goals leads to recognition by peers, supervisors, and others.
• Attaining goals leads to feelings of increased self-confidence, pride in achievement, and willingness to accept future challenges.
Important Goal CharacteristicsImportant Goal Characteristics(Figure 6-9)(Figure 6-9)
SPECIFIC GOALS
DIFFICULT GOALS
FEEDBACK ONPROGRESS
COMPETITION
PARTICIPATIONIN GOAL SETTING
MOTIVATION
GOALACCEPTANCE
GOALCOMMITMENT
Management by ObjectivesManagement by Objectives
• Management by objectives (MBO) is a motivational technique in which the manager and employee work together to set employee goals.
• MBO combines many key goal setting principles, including setting of specific goals, participation in goal setting, and feedback on performance.
• MBO may be difficult and time consuming to implement, and may encourage focus on easily-quantifiable goals.
• 68 of 70 major studies showed MBO to result in productivity gains.
The Bottom Line: Goal Setting The Bottom Line: Goal Setting TheoryTheory
Use EmployeeParticipation toSet Difficult andSpecific Goals
Use EmployeeParticipation toSet Difficult andSpecific Goals
Ensure That theEmployee Under-Stands the Goalsand is Committedto Achieving Them
Ensure That theEmployee Under-Stands the Goalsand is Committedto Achieving Them
ProvideManagement Support(Including Feedback)for Achievement ofEmployee Goals
ProvideManagement Support(Including Feedback)for Achievement ofEmployee Goals
Link AppropriateConsequences toGoal Achievement
Link AppropriateConsequences toGoal Achievement
Assess EmployeeJob PerformanceAgainst Goals
Assess EmployeeJob PerformanceAgainst Goals
The Components of ExpectancyThe Components of ExpectancyTheory (Figure 6-10)Theory (Figure 6-10)
Effort to Perform at a Certain Level
Second-Order Outcome 2 (e.g.,Pay) with Valence V2
Second-Order Outcome 1 (e.g.,Approval of Supervisor)
with Valence V1
Second-Order Outcome 3 (e.g.,Esteem of Coworkers)
with Valence V3
Second-Order Outcome 4 (e.g.,Promotion Opportunities)
with Valence V4
Second-Order Outcomes 5 to n(e.g., Job Security, Better WorkHours) with Valences V5 to Vn
First-OrderOutcome
(e.g., Performance)
EX
PE
CT
AN
CY
INS
TR
UM
EN
TA
LIT
IES
The Linkage of Effort to a First-The Linkage of Effort to a First-Order Outcome (Figure 6-11)Order Outcome (Figure 6-11)
EffortFirst-OrderOutcome
RolePerceptions
Ability
SituationalConstraints
Implications of Expectancy TheoryImplications of Expectancy Theory
• Recognize that three conditions are necessary for motivation to perform.
• Assess perceptions of each of these conditions.• Identify gaps between employee and management perceptions.• Make sure you are giving employees what they want.• Ask what factors may be weakening expectancy perceptions.• Ask what factors may be weakening instrumentality perceptions.• If employees appear to be poorly motivated, work backwards.
The Bottom Line: Expectancy TheoryThe Bottom Line: Expectancy Theory
Identify DesiredLevel of EmployeeMotivation
Identify DesiredLevel of EmployeeMotivation
Provide Training,Direction, andOpportunities toSucceed to Enhance Employee’s Belief thatHe/She Can AchieveHigh Job Performance
Provide Training,Direction, andOpportunities toSucceed to Enhance Employee’s Belief thatHe/She Can AchieveHigh Job Performance
Promote Employee’sBelief that JobPerformance Mattersby Using AppropriateReward Policies andPractices
Promote Employee’sBelief that JobPerformance Mattersby Using AppropriateReward Policies andPractices
Use Organizational RewardSystems and Job Design toLink Positively ValuedConsequences to EmployeeJob Performance in an Equitable Manner
Use Organizational RewardSystems and Job Design toLink Positively ValuedConsequences to EmployeeJob Performance in an Equitable Manner
Promote ManagerialSupport to EnsureThat EmployeeMotivation Results inHigh Job Performance
Promote ManagerialSupport to EnsureThat EmployeeMotivation Results inHigh Job Performance
Why Be Fair? General ReasonsWhy Be Fair? General Reasons
• When people experience a situation they feel is not fair, they experience an unpleasant state of tension.
• Some people try to be fair because they think others will reward them for being fair.
• Behaving fairly may bolster a person’s self-esteem.
• Most people find it comforting to believe that life is fair.
Why Be Fair? Employers’ ReasonsWhy Be Fair? Employers’ Reasons
• To conform to business norms.
• To attract superior workers to their company and weed out inferior workers.
• To motivate employees to produce.
• To develop trust.
Equity Theory EquationEquity Theory Equation
Op
Ip
Oo
IO=
Restoring Equity (Underpaid Case)Restoring Equity (Underpaid Case)
• Raise actual outcomes
• Lower inputs
• Perceptually distort inputs and/or outcomes
• Perceptually distort comparison other’s inputs and/or outcomes
• Leave the situation
• Act to change the comparison other’s inputs and/or outcomes
• Change the comparison other
How People Choose From Among Ways How People Choose From Among Ways to Reduce Inequityto Reduce Inequity
• People will first try to maximize valued outcomes.• People will be reluctant to increase inputs that are difficult or costly to change.• People will resist actual or perceived changes in inputs or outcomes that are
central to their self-concept and self-esteem.• People will be more resistant to changing perceptions of their own inputs and
outcomes than to changing perceptions of their comparison other’s inputs and outcomes.
• People will leave the situation only when inequity is great and other means of reducing it are not available.
• People will be reluctant to change their comparison others.
The Bottom Line: Equity TheoryThe Bottom Line: Equity Theory
AssessEmployeePerceptionsof Equity inTheir WorkSituations
AssessEmployeePerceptionsof Equity inTheir WorkSituations
IdentifyEmployeesWhoPerceiveInequities
IdentifyEmployeesWhoPerceiveInequities
Identify theBasis forEmployeePerceptionsof Inequity
Identify theBasis forEmployeePerceptionsof Inequity
EvaluateManagementPolicies and Practicesto Determine theValidity of EmployeePerceptions
EvaluateManagementPolicies and Practicesto Determine theValidity of EmployeePerceptions
Identify SpecificChanges That Can Be Made to AddressEmployee EquityConcerns
Identify SpecificChanges That Can Be Made to AddressEmployee EquityConcerns
Implement Changes andCommunicateThem toEmployees
Implement Changes andCommunicateThem toEmployees
Rules for Determining Distributive Rules for Determining Distributive FairnessFairness
• Contributions Rule: Give people outcomes in proportion to their contributions (inputs).
• Needs Rule: Give people outcomes according to their needs.
• Equality Rule: Give people outcomes on an equal basis.
Factors Influencing WeightsFactors Influencing WeightsGiven to Distributive Fairness RulesGiven to Distributive Fairness Rules
• Self-interest: People tend to assign higher weights to rules that favor them.
• Conformity: People tend to conform to the rules favored by others with whom they interact.
• Availability of Relevant Information: People are reluctant to use a rule for which they don’t have sufficient information.
Implications of Fairness TheoriesImplications of Fairness Theories
• Fairness is absolutely critical to employees.
• Perceptions play a central role in determinations of fairness.
• Fairness involves a comparison process.
• Both distributive fairness and procedural fairness are important.
• Both overreward and underreward may cause problems.
Implications of Fairness Theories Implications of Fairness Theories (Continued)(Continued)
• Employees may consider inputs and outcomes that are different than those we may expect.
• We need to find what people really value and what they think they are contributing.
• Employees may find many ways to reduce perceived inequity.
• While the exact means employees will use to reduce inequity may be difficult to predict, almost all are harmful to organizations and perhaps to the individuals themselves.
The Case for SpecializationThe Case for Specialization
• The worker should be better able to perform the task and should find it to be easier.
• Time is not lost moving from one piece of machinery to another.
• The use of specialized machinery is encouraged.• Replacement of employees who are absent or who leave the
organization is easier, since the job is simpler to learn.• Especially when assembly lines are used, the worker may
adjust to the required pace and be drawn along by “traction.”
Potential Reactions to Specialized Jobs Potential Reactions to Specialized Jobs (Figure 6-13)(Figure 6-13)
Simplified,Low Skill
Level, ShortCycle Jobs
StimulusCondition
Monotony
Perception
Boredom,Job
Dissatis-faction
AffectiveResponse
Absenteeism,Turnover,
Restriction ofOutput
BehavioralResponse
The Argyris Maturity Drive The Argyris Maturity Drive Frustration Cycle (Figure 6-14)Frustration Cycle (Figure 6-14)
Individual’s DrivesToward Maturity,Including Desires for:• Activity• Independence•Diverse Behavior•Deep Interests•Long Time Perspective•Superordinate Position
Frustration ofMaturityDrives
Defense Mechanisms,Including:• Apathy• Daydreaming• Negativism• Rate Restriction• Absenteeism
Organization’s Rules, Formal Hierarchy,Emphasis on Authority, and SpecializedWork, Resulting in Employee:• Passivity • Shallow Interests• Dependence • Short Time Perspective• Few Ways of Behaving • Subordinate Position
The Job Characteristics ModelThe Job Characteristics Model(Figure 6-15)(Figure 6-15)
Core JobDimensions
CriticalPsychological
States
Personal andWork Outcomes
Skill VarietyTask Identity
Task Significance
ExperiencedMeaningfulness
of Work
AutonomyExperienced
Responsibility forWork Outcomes
FeedbackKnowledge ofthe Results of
Work Outcomes
High InternalWork Motivation
High-QualityWork Performance
High Satisfactionwith Work
Low Absenteeismand Turnover
Employee Growth-Need Strength
Implementing Principles for Job Implementing Principles for Job Redesign (Figure 6-17)Redesign (Figure 6-17)
CombiningTasks
Forming NaturalWork Units
Establishing ClientRelationships
Vertically Loadingthe Job
Opening FeedbackChannels
ImplementingPrinciples
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Autonomy
Feedback fromthe Task Itself
Core JobCharacteristics
The Bottom Line: Job Characteristics TheoryThe Bottom Line: Job Characteristics Theory
Design Jobs toReflect HighLevels of theFive CoreJob Dimensions
Design Jobs toReflect HighLevels of theFive CoreJob Dimensions
Ensure That EmployeesPossessHigh Growth-Need Strength
Ensure That EmployeesPossessHigh Growth-Need Strength
Assess EmployeePerceptions of theFive Core Dimensionsand Personal andWork Outcomes
Assess EmployeePerceptions of theFive Core Dimensionsand Personal andWork Outcomes
Identify Opportunitiesto Redesign the Jobto Increase Core JobDimensions
Identify Opportunitiesto Redesign the Jobto Increase Core JobDimensions
Implement theJob Redesign
Implement theJob Redesign
Evaluate theEffectiveness ofthe Job Redesign
Evaluate theEffectiveness ofthe Job Redesign