CHAPTER 5 Learning - Mesa Community Collegemesacc.edu/~edmny04781/psy101_oc/Chapter_5.pdf ·...

1

CHAPTER

5 Learning

Links to Learning Objectives

ENDURING ISSUES IN LEARNING

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Definition of learning

Basic elements & establishing a response

Classical conditioning in humans & selectivity

OPERANT CONDITIONING

How operant and classical conditioning differ

Basic elements, establishing a response,

reinforcement, & punishment

Learned helplessness

Biofeedback & neurofeedback

FACTORS SHARED BY CLASSICAL

AND OPERANT CONDITIONING

Contingencies

Schedules of reinforcement

Extinction, spontaneous recovery,

generalization, & discrimination

Higher-order conditioning & primary &

secondary reinforcers

COGNITIVE LEARNING

Definition, latent learning, & cognitive maps

Insight & learning sets

Observational learning

Cognitive learning in nonhumans

Enduring Issues

How is learning

influenced by an

organism’s inborn

characteristics?

Diversity-

Universality

Stability-Change

Mind-Body

Nature-Nurture

Person-Situation

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Enduring Issues

To what extent do

organisms change

over the course

of their lives?

Diversity-

Universality

Stability-Change

Mind-Body

Nature-Nurture

Person-Situation

Enduring Issues

In what ways do the events

that shape learning vary among

different individuals?

Diversity-

Universality

Stability-Change

Mind-Body

Nature-Nurture

Person-Situation

Enduring Issues

How does learning

influence how our body

responds to disease?

Diversity-

Universality

Stability-Change

Mind-Body

Nature-Nurture

Person-Situation

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3

Any

relatively

permanent

change in

behavior

brought about

by experience

or practice

e a r n i n g

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Define learning.

Three Types of Learning

OperantConditioning

Classical

Conditioning

CognitiveLearning

Classical Conditioning

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• Type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral, stimulus

• Discovered by Pavlov while studying digestion in dogs

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the elements of classical conditioning,

distinguishing between unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned

stimulus and conditioned response. Describe the process of establishing a classically

conditioned response, including the effect of intermittent pairing.

Pavlov and Classical Conditioning“A ringing bell does not usually make a dog’s mouth water, but after hearing

the bell many times right before getting fed, Pavlov’s dogs began to salivate as

soon as the bell rang. It was as if they had learned that the bell signaled the

appearance of food, and their mouths watered on cue even if no food followed.

The dogs had been conditioned…(Pavlov, 1927).”

– Page 156 (Morris and Maisto)

Elements of Classical Conditioning: New Reflexes from Old

CONDITIONED

(learned)

UNCONDITIONED

(unlearned)

STIMULUS

RESPONSE

STIMULUS

RESPONSE

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5

Putting It Together

Neutral

StimulusNo

Response

Unconditioned

Stimulus

Unconditioned

Response

Conditioned

Response

Conditioned

Stimulus

It takes repeated pairings of

a US and a cue before the

UR becomes a conditioned

response.

Establishing a Classically Conditioned Response

Spacing

of Pairings

Consistency

of Pairings

Number

of Pairings

Moderate spacing

of pairings means

quicker learning.


Spacing

of Pairings

Consistency

of Pairings

Number

of Pairings

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Pairing the CS and US on

only some of the learning

trials (intermittent pairing)

reduces rate of learning

and final strength of the

learned response.


Spacing

of Pairings

Consistency

of Pairings

Number

of Pairings

Classical Conditioning in Humans

Learned through

classical conditioning

• Little Albert

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Provide examples of classical conditioning in humans,

including desensitization therapy. Explain the statement that “classical conditioning

is selective” and illustrate with examples of conditioned taste aversions.

Unlearned through

classical conditioning

• Peter

• Desensitization therapy

Phobias

Classical Conditioning Is Selective

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Operant Conditioning


Type of learning in which

behaviors are emitted (in the

presence of specific stimuli)

to earn rewards or avoid

punishments

• Thorndike’s puzzle box

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain how operant conditioning differs from

classical conditioning.

The cat can escape

and be rewarded with

food by tripping the bolt

on the door.

Emitted behavior

(operant behavior): Designed to

operate on the environment to

gain something desired, avoid

something unpleasant

Consequence: Stimulus that

follows an emitted or operant

behavior

• Reinforcers

• Punishers

• Law of effect

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain the law of effect (the principle of reinforcement) and the role of reinforcers, punishers, and shaping in establishing an operantly conditioned response. Differentiate between positive reinforcers, negative reinforcers, and punishment. Explain the circumstances under which punishment can be effective and the drawbacks to using punishment.

Elements of Operant Conditioning

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Establishing an Operantly Conditioned Response

Skinner box

• Limits the available

responses, increasing

likelihood that desired

response will occur

Shaping

• Reinforces successive

approximations to a

desired behavior

Applying Psychology

1. Identify “target” behavior.

2. Define target behavior precisely.

3. Monitor present behavior.

4. Select positive reinforcer that is

contingent upon improvements

in the target behavior.

A stimulus

that follows

a behavior

and increases

the likelihood

that the

behavior

will be

repeated

einforcer

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Positive reinforcers:Events whose presence increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur

Negative reinforcers:Events whose reduction or termination increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur

A Closer Look at Reinforcement

Any event

whose presence

decreases the

likelihood that

an ongoing

behavior will

recur

u n i s hm e n t

Differences Between Punishment and Negative Reinforcement

Punishment

• Adds something

unpleasant to the

environment

• Weakens the

behavior that

preceded it

Negative reinforcement

• Removes something

unpleasant from the

environment

• Strengthens the

behavior that

preceded it

BEHAVIORBEHAVIOR

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Punishment

In order for punishment

to be effective it must be:

• Swift

• Sufficient without being cruel

• Consistent

Punishment

Punishment also has drawbacks because it:

• Cannot unteach unwanted behaviors

• Can backfire by stirring up negative feelings

• Can teach aggression

Learned Helplessness

Learned helplessness:

Failure to take steps to

avoid or escape from

an unpleasant or

aversive stimulus that

occurs as a result of

previous exposure to

unavoidable painful

stimuli

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain what is meant by learned helplessness.

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11

Biofeedback:technique using monitoring devices to provide precise information about internal physiological processes (i.e. heart rate, blood pressure), to teach people to gain voluntary control over these functions

Neurofeedback:

biofeedback technique

that monitors brain

waves with the use of an

EEG to teach people to

gain voluntary

control over their brain

wave activity

Shaping Behavioral Change Through Biofeedback

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe how biofeedback and neurofeedback can be

used to change behavior.

Factors Shared by Classical and Operant Conditioning

1

2

3

4

They involve learned associations.

Responses are under control of stimuli

in the environment.

Responses will gradually disappear

if not periodically renewed.

New behaviors can build upon

previously established ones.

Factors Shared by Classical and Operant Conditioning

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The Importance of Contingencies


• Contingency between CS and US;

CS signals that US is about to happen

– CS must come before US

– CS must occur in close proximity to US

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the importance of contingencies in both operant

and classical conditioning.

The Importance of Contingencies


• Contingency between

responses and consequences

– Schedules of reinforcement:

contingencies between

responses and rewards

• Partial reinforcement =

longer-lasting behavior

• Continuous reinforcement =

behavior does not last as

long

Schedules of Reinforcement: FR

FR: Correct response is

reinforced after a fixed number of

correct responses

Rapid, steady response rate with short pauses

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Differentiate between the four schedules of reinforcement in

operant conditioning and their effect on learned behavior.

Variable Interval

Fixed Interval

Variable Ratio

Fixed Ratio

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Schedules of Reinforcement: VR

VR: Varying number of correct

responses must occur before

reinforcement

Rapid rate without pauses

Variable Interval

Fixed Interval

Variable Ratio

Fixed Ratio

Schedules of Reinforcement: FI

FI: Correct response is reinforced

after a fixed length of time has

passed

Increase in response before reinforcement, long pauses after

Variable Interval

Fixed Interval

Variable Ratio

Fixed Ratio

Schedules of Reinforcement: VI

VI: Correct response is reinforced

after varying amounts of time

Slower, steady rate

Variable Interval

Fixed Interval

Variable Ratio

Fixed Ratio

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14

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

Extinction: Decrease in the strength or frequency, or stopping, of a learned response because of:

• failure to continue pairing the US and CS (classical conditioning)

• withholding of reinforcement (operant conditioning)

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the processes of extinction, spontaneous recovery,

generalization, and discrimination in classical and operant conditioning.

Spontaneous recovery: Learned response suddenly reappears on its own

Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery in Classical Conditioning

CS-US paired CS alone

TRIALS

CS aloneRest

Amount of spontaneous

recovery

Extinction in Operant Conditioning

Strength of the original learning

Pattern of reinforcement

Variety of settings in which the original learning took place

Complexity of the behavior

Learning through punishment vs. reinforcement

Extinguishing operantly conditioned responses

depends on a number of factors:

1

2

3

4

5

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Stimulus Control

Control of conditioned responses

by cues or stimuli in the environment

Occurs in classical conditioning?

• YES ___ NO ___

Occurs in operant conditioning?

• YES ___ NO ___

Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus

generalization:

Transfer of a learned

response to different

but similar stimuli

Occurs in classical

conditioning?

• YES ___ NO ___

Occurs in operant

conditioning?

• YES ___ NO ___

Response

generalization:

Giving a response that

is somewhat different from

the response originally

learned to that stimulus

Occurs in classical

conditioning?

• YES ___ NO ___

Occurs in operant

conditioning?

• YES ___ NO ___

Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to respond to only

one stimulus and to inhibit the

response to all other stimuli

Occurs in classical conditioning?

• YES ___ NO ___

Occurs in operant conditioning?

• YES ___ NO ___

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Neutral

StimulusNo

Response

Unconditioned

Stimulus

Unconditioned

Response

Conditioned

Response

Conditioned

Stimulus

New Learning Based on Original Learning

Higher order conditioning:

Conditioning based on previous learning

• Conditioned stimulus serves as an

unconditioned stimulus for further training

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain what is meant by higher order conditioning and

differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers.

New Learning Based on Original Learning

Primary

reinforcers:

Reinforcers that

are rewarding in

themselves

Secondary

reinforcers:

Reinforcers whose

value is acquired

through association

with other primary

or secondary

reinforcers

Summing Up“The main difference between…(classical and operant conditioning) is that in

classical conditioning, the learner is passive and the behavior involved is

usually involuntary, whereas in operant conditioning, the learner is active and

the behavior involved is usually voluntary.”

– Page 176 (Morris and Maisto)

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Cognitive Learning

Cognitive Learning

Learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable

• Latent learning: Learning that is not immediately reflected in a behavior change

• Cognitive map: A learned mental image of a spatial environment that may be called on to solve problems when stimuli in the environment change

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Define cognitive learning and how it can be inferred from

evidence of latent learning and cognitive maps.

Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps

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18

Insight and Learning Sets

Insight: Learning that occurs rapidly as a

result of understanding all the

elements of a problem

Learning set: The ability to become increasingly

more effective in solving problems

as more problems are solved

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain what is meant by insight and its relation to

learning sets.

Learning by Observing

Observational (or vicarious) learning:

Learning by observing other people’s

behavior based on the punishment and

rewards others receive

Vicarious reinforcement (or

punishment):

Reinforcement or punishment

experienced by models that affects the

willingness of others to perform the

behaviors they learned by observing

those models

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain the process of

observational (vicarious) learning and the conditions

under which it is most likely to be reflected in behavior.

Learning and Performance

Learning can occur without performance.

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Albert Bandura

Social cognitive theoryThe Bobo doll experiment (1965) illustrated the influence of modeled aggression on preschool children.

• Children imitated aggressive behaviors they observed.

• This had important implications regarding unintentionally teaching aggression to children.

Results of Bandura’s Study

Source: Results of Bandura’s study. From “Influence of

models’ reinforcement contingencies on the

acquisition of imitative responses” by A. Bandura,

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 592,

1965. Reprinted by permission of the American

Psychological Association and the author.

Cognitive Learning in Nonhumans

Experiments have revealed

that animals are capable

of various forms of

cognitive learning through:

• observing others

• experiencing pairing of

stimuli and responses

• acquiring behaviors in

response to rewards and

punishments

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Give examples of cognitive learning in nonhumans.

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Lecture Activities

Classical Conditioning in the Classroom

Let’s see if we can set up and test a scenario for

classically conditioning a simple reflex, right here

in the classroom.

Pair up!

?!Tony is 6 years old, with a father who is usually busy with work, and

who leaves most parental decisions to Tony’s mother. Recently, Tony

has begun to disobey his mother’s instructions, which causes Tony’s

father to spank him and lecture him about obedience. Afterwards,

Tony disobeys his mother even more than before. What conclusion(s)

can we reach?

A.The Law of Effect is not really a law, because it does not explain Tony’s

behavior – Tony is doing the behavior more even though the behavior is being

punished.

B.The Law of Effect does explain Tony’s behavior – Tony is being rewarded for

his behavior, so it happens more often.

C.Tony likely has a psychological disorder that leads to this behavior.

D.Tony’s parents are relying on classical conditioning instead of operant

conditioning.

21

What shape would you like?

Using strict behavioral principles, let’s

see if we can shape someone into

performing a very simple behavior here

in class. We’ll need a victim…

Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment

In small groups, decide which of the following illustrates

negative reinforcement or punishment. Discuss your

rationale.

1. Playing less aggressively in a soccer game to avoid a red card.

2. Being thrown out of a soccer game for playing too

aggressively.

3. Mailing your income tax in on time to avoid a late penalty.

4. Losing some of your money to pay a late penalty for filing your

taxes after April 15th.

5. Obeying your parent, before she reaches the “count of three,”

to avoid punishment.

Do we repeat the past?

What was your experience with punishment

and reward growing up? Were you rewarded

for good grades? How about spankings for

misbehavior? How did your parents encourage

and discourage your behaviors? Will you

punish and reward like your parents?

22

How strongly do you agree or disagree

with the following statements? Why?

1. My behavior is affected by what I see on

television and at the movies.

2. My emotions are affected by what I see on


3. My thoughts are affected by what I see on


Acknowledgments

Slide # Image Description Image Source

text template

upside down blue sky & grass ©iStockphoto.com/Konrad Lew

chapter template

mouse riding bicycle ©istockphoto.com/James Brey

3 spider ©istockphoto.com/Audrey Bell

3 person looking scared of spider ©istockphoto.com/Tiny Moments Photography

4 person figuring something out ©istockphoto.com/Digital Savant LLC

5 happy woman worker ©istockphoto.com/Artemis Gordon

5 unhappy woman worker ©istockphoto.com/Pawel Gaul

6 guy with flu mask ©istockphoto.com/Jon Schulte

7 sky ©istockphoto.com/Konrad Lew

7 kite ©istockphoto.com/Petr Jilek

9 mouse riding bicycle ©istockphoto.com/James Brey

10 illustration: dog experiment Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 156

11 Open Your Book - textbook cover Shutterstock

11 Open Your Book - textbook background From Ciccarelli, 1/e pp. 213-214

11 Open Your Book - open textbook From Ciccarelli, 1/e pp. 114-115

12 dog biscuits ©istockphoto.com/MBPhoto, Inc.

12 dog food bowl ©istockphoto.com/Jonas Engström

12 salivating dog ©istockphoto.com/Jess Wiberg

12 hand ©istockphoto.com/Stas Perov

12 bell ©istockphoto.com/Igor Sandra

icon: classic studies car ©istockphoto.com/Brian Sullivan




13 not salivating dog ©istockphoto.com/Eric Isselée


23


13 wood floor ©istockphoto.com/Drew Hadley

14 diagram: repeated pairings Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 157




17 white rat ©istockphoto.com/Butinova Elena


17 woman with bullhorn ©istockphoto.com/Joshua Hodge Photography

17 box of chocolates ©istockphoto.com/The Desktop Studio

18 girl refusing medicine (yucky) ©istockphoto.com/Paul Roux

18 spider ©istockphoto.com/Audrey Bell

18 person looking scared of spider ©istockphoto.com/Tiny Moments Photography

20 illustration: thorndike puzzle box Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 161

21 applause ©istockphoto.com/Lise Gagne

22 icon: helmet ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun

22 seeing eye dog ©istockphoto.com/Lisa Fletcher

23 scrap of paper ©istockphoto.com/Trevor Hunt

23 guy watching tv ©istockphoto.com/Alexander Login

23 person skiing ©istockphoto.com/Sportstock

24 trophy ©istockphoto.com/Pali Rao

24 gold background ©istockphoto.com/naphtalina

24 diamond R ©istockphoto.com/blackred

25 icon: peer instruction Charlie Levin

25 clouds ©istockphoto.com/Milorad Zaric

25 woman with umbrella ©istockphoto.com/Annett Vauteck

25 handing money ©istockphoto.com/Youra Pechkin

26 standing in the corner ©istockphoto.com/Brad Killer

27 icon: jigsaw puzzle Charlie Levin

28 parent and punished sad child ©istockphoto.com/Fertnig Photography

29 icon: wanted sign Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from ©istockphoto.com/andynwt

29 parent and punished mad child ©istockphoto.com/Juanmonino

30 illustration: learned helplessness From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e, p. 194

31 woman profile ©istockphoto.com/Juanmonino

31 lights for inside of head ©istockphoto.com/Andrey Prokhorov

31 heart & arteries ©istockphoto.com/SciePro






35 illustration: thorndike puzzle box Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 161

36–39 Figure 5-6: Response patterns to schedules of reinforcement

Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 171

36 industrial sewing ©istockphoto.com/poco_bw

37 slot machine ©istockphoto.com/leezsnow

38 woman at dentist ©istockphoto.com/webphotographeer

38 alarm clock ©istockphoto.com/hidesy

39 alarm clock ©istockphoto.com/hidesy

39 man fishing ©istockphoto.com/tacojim

41 Figure 5-7: Response acquisition and extinction in classical conditioning

Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 172

43–45 paper background ©istockphoto.com/gaffera


46 not salivating dog ©istockphoto.com/Eric Isselée




47 gold medal ©istockphoto.com/MorganLane studios

47 head ©istockphoto.com/Suzanne Tucker

47 food - burger & fries ©istockphoto.com/Adolfo Lazo

47 gears ©iStockphoto.com/Mark Stay

48 Open Your Book - textbook cover Shutterstock

48 Open Your Book - textbook background From Ciccarelli, 1/e pp. 213-214

48 Open Your Book - open textbook From Ciccarelli, 1/e pp. 114-115

48 icon: wanted sign Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from ©istockphoto.com/andynwt

50 wire frame head ©istockphoto.com/Oksana

50 gears ©iStockphoto.com/Mark Stay

51 two tone rat standing up ©istockphoto.com/Dmitry Maslov

51 white rat ©istockphoto.com/Butinova Elena

51 Figure 5.9: A typical maze From Ciccarelli, 2/e p. 206

51 Figure 5.10: Learning Curves for Three Groups of Rats

From Ciccarelli, 2/e p. 207

52 insight ©istockphoto.com/Digital Savant LLC

53 child watching another child receive a medal ©istockphoto.com/digital planet design

54 people dancing ©istockphoto.com/Joseph C. Justice Jr.

54 guy watching ©istockphoto.com/TommL

54 dance steps ©istockphoto.com/Russell Tate

54 background for dancers ©istockphoto.com/Matthew Dula

54 guy watching ©istockphoto.com/TommL

55 boy watching violent cartoon on TV ©istockphoto.com/ryasick

56 Figure 5-9: Results of Bandura's study Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 181

57 chimpanzee ©istockphoto.com/Life on White

57 dolphin ©istockphoto.com/Skynesher

57 bumblebee ©istockphoto.com/arlindo71

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57 killer whales ©istockphoto.com/Jami Garrison






59 topbar: chrome & license plate ©istockphoto.com/Grafissimo

59 topbar:red shiny car background ©istockphoto.com/Jon Helgason

59 icon: classic studies car ©istockphoto.com/Brian Sullivan

60 topbar: chalkboard ©istockphoto.com/Studio Araminta

60 topbar: people icons Charlie Levin

61 topbar: helmets ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun

61 topbar: athletic field ©istockphoto.com/Jamie Otterstetter

62 topbar: jigsaw pieces animation Charlie Levin

62 topbar: jigsaw bk ©istockphoto.com/Felix Möckel

62 soccer player receiving red card ©istockphoto.com/techno

63 topbar: cactus ©istockphoto.com/Lee Daniels

63 topbar: wooden board ©istockphoto.com/andynwt

64 topbar: cactus ©istockphoto.com/Lee Daniels

64 topbar: wooden board ©istockphoto.com/andynwt

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