Chapter 5

Learning

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2

Defining Learning

• Learning– a relatively permanent change in behavior that

occurs through experience

• Fixed action patterns– behaviors that are driven by genetic inheritance

and are species-specific

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 3

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning– a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus

becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response

• Reflexes– automatic stimulus-response connections that

are “hardwired” into the brain

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 4

How Classical ConditioningWorks

• Unconditioned stimulus (US)– a stimulus that produces a response without

prior learning

• Unconditioned response (UR)– an unlearned response that is automatically

associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5

How Classical ConditioningWorks

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)– elicits the conditioned response after being

paired with the unconditioned stimulus

• Conditioned Response (CR)– the learned response to the conditioned

stimulus that occurs after CS-US association

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 6

Classical ConditioningPhenomena

• Generalization– the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to

the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response

• Discrimination– the process of learning to respond to certain

stimuli and not to others

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7

Classical ConditioningPhenomena

• Extinction– the weakening of the conditioned response in

the absence of the unconditioned stimulus

• Spontaneous recovery– the process by which a conditioned response

can appear again after a time delay without further conditioning

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9

Applications in HumanClassical Conditioning

• Phobias

• Counterconditioning– a classical conditioning procedure for

weakening a conditioned response of fear by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response that is incompatible with the fear

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 10

Evaluation of ClassicalConditioning

• Stimulus substitution– CS substitutes for the US

• Information theory– the key to understanding classical conditioning

is the information the organism obtains from the situation

– latent learning

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 11

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)– a form of learning in which the consequences

of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 12

Operant Conditioning

• Thorndike’s Law of Effect– behaviors followed by positive outcomes are

strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 13

Operant Conditioning

• Skinner’s Operant Conditioning– Reinforcement

• increases the probability of behavior

– Positive reinforcement• response is followed by a stimulus

– Negative reinforcement• response either removes a stimulus or involves

avoiding the stimulus

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14

Operant Conditioning

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 15

Operant Conditioning

• Punishment– a consequence that decreases the probability

that a behavior will occur

• Shaping– rewarding approximations

• Chaining– technique used to teach a complex sequence of

behaviors

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 16

Operant Conditioning

• Primary reinforcement– reinforcers that are innately satisfying

• Secondary reinforcement– acquires its positive value through experience

• Partial reinforcement– intermittent reinforcement

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 17

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed-ratio schedule– reinforcement of a behavior after a set number

• Variable-ratio schedule– a timetable in which response are rewarded an

average number of times, but on an unpredictable basis

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 18

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed-interval schedule– reinforcement of the first appropriate response

after a fixed amount of time has elapsed

• Variable-interval schedule– reinforcement of a response after a variable

amount of time has elapsed

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 19

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 20

Observational Learning

• Observational learning– learning that occurs when a person observes

and imitates someone else’s behavior

• Mentor– a role model who acts as an advisor, coach, and

confidant

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 21

Cognitive Factors inLearning

• S-O-R model– a model of learning that gives some importance

to cognitive factors– S=Stimulus, O=Organism, R=Response

• Bandura’s cognitive model– self-efficacy

• the expectation that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 22

Cognitive Factors inLearning

• Cognitive maps– an organism’s mental representation of the the

structure of physical space

• Insight learning– a form of problem solving in which an

organism develops a sudden understanding of a problem’s solution

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 23

Biological Factors in Learning

• Preparedness– the species-specific biological predisposition to

learn in certain ways but not in others

• Instinctive drift– the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive

behavior that interferes with learning

• Taste aversion– the conditioned avoidance of certain substances

Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 24

Cultural Factors in Learning

• How does culture affect learning?– Degree to which these learning processes are

used– Determines the content of learning