1

Chapter 4: Group 4 (Jolynn Donhoff, Ken-neth Oms, Bethany Powers, Charles Parry, Alexander Weston, Cheyne Hen-derson, and Alice Moskola)

Information Flu-ency

o you know how to conduct accurate research, iden-tify reliable information, and use it ethically? If so, you have very likely engaged in a set of abilities

known as Information Fluency. Information Fluency, also called Information Literacy, is a collection of critical think-ing skills that an individual uses when conducting research. Furthermore, it is also logical to consider Information Flu-ency as its own type of research, which will be explained later in this chapter.

D

APPLYING INFORMATION FLUENCY

First, these critical thinking skills allow everyone from all backgrounds and levels of education to find information and

2

conduct research in an ethical, organized, and appropriate manner. Therefore, Information Fluency can be applied to almost anything and anyone. Surprisingly, you probably use Information Fluency in your everyday life whether you are writing a document as a student or even reading a news article during your day-to-day routine.

The set of critical skills that make up Information Fluency allows you to establish how much information you need, as-sess information and sources analytically, find the proper information, apply the information to achieve your goal or objective, recognize the legal, economic, and social con-cerns revolving around your use of the information, and en-able you to find and use information properly within the standards of the law and ethical parameters.

As a writer, you can use Information Fluency to organize your documents in a way that allows your reader to easily read your document and find the right information. As a reader, you can apply Information Fluency to determine what and how much information you need, to evaluate the credibility of the source, and to determine a good source from a bad one. This is explained in more detail in the sub-section, “Using Information Fluency as a Writer vs. as a Reader.”

For students, these critical thinking skills allows them to gain appropriate information by asking the right questions and realizing what information is most important in their textbooks, scholarly articles, etc. In summary, Information Fluency allows anyone to learn the correct information on their own.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The emergence of the Information Age has led Information Fluency to become immensely important to society. Before

3

the 90s, the internet did not exist for the general population and people received information from books, newspapers, letters, movies, and by word of mouth. With the creation of the internet, the way we find and read information has changed. To sort through this immense collection of infor-mation, individuals must use and apply Information Fluency when conducting research on the web. In the technological age, individuals need the critical skills that Information Flu-ency offers.

THE IMPORTANCE OF INFORMATION LITERACY

Information Fluency is important whether you are as a stu-dent, part of an organization, or a professional writer. It al-lows every individual to be properly informed. Without the skills it offers, people would generally rely on the biased opinion whether found on the internet or circulated by their peers. For example, this can lead to the population adopting inaccurate viewpoints that can affect their lives such as his/her decision about a career or even misinformation about sex and health issues. In addition, if students do not know the correct information about plagiarism, they might find themselves in trouble with their school or the law. How-ever, generally, the lack of Information Fluency leads to misinformation. If you do not know how to use and apply Information Fluency, you will have a difficult time making decisions and determining how to research or how to apply information to your everyday life and within your written communications. Simply, Information Fluency is the process that teaches us how to learn. If you know how to learn, you will be able to handle any situation or project, whether per-sonal or business related, with efficiency.

In this chapter, we will explain how you can use Information Fluency and present you with a variety of tools for a suc-cessful research endeavor.

4

INFORMATION FLUENCY: A FORM OF RESEARCH

Many writers agree that the very essence of Information Fluency is the ability to use finely tuned research skills to successfully gather information. Finding all of the relevant information on a subject is the prerequisite for being able to critically analyze information, which writers carefully use to construct our writing projects. In short, writers rely on carefully developed research to achieve obtaining the criti-cal information that we need to assist us with our communi-cations.

As writers, we are also learners, and our goal is to facilitate assisting others to learn through our research and written communications. Professional writers and students will agree that Information Fluency is considered research by the idea that writers must identify and deeply explore all information that will be useful for our readers. These ideas also include selecting relevant and credible data from ap-propriate sources to assist us with our work. For writers, not only will well-developed research strengthen our work, the correctly acquired research will gain the confidence of our communication’s readers.

NATURE AND EXTENT OF INFORMATION REQUIRED

As writers, we are likely to agree with one another that we want our final written communications (the products of our blood, sweat, and tears) to be easy to use, useful to our readers, consistent in its formatting, and clear and concise. By carefully gathering, selecting, and scrutinizing all of the applicable information possible on our subject (who, what, when, where, how, why, pros, cons, unintended conse-

5

quences, by-products, etc.), we can begin the foundation and the nature from where our work will begin and evolve into something useful and credible that we can share with others.

Taking on the necessary and initial tasks to deeply explore all relevant information, relationships, and the complexities of the subject matter and the extent of the information needed that will support the goals of our writing, is one of the key concepts involved Information Fluency. Simultane-ously, so is the ability to efficiently research information and effectively analyze appropriate and useful sources on a subject(s). This also includes interpreting the information from each of our sources, in order to produce an effective communication that will assist our readers with completing their tasks or provide new insight or information.

Whether our writing will assist a document’s user to per-form a single task or guide a user through many steps or provide them with insight on an entire subject, understanding the comprehensive totality of our sub-ject(s) and efficiently organizing the sum of the relevant information is essential for us as writers, in or-der to produce reliable and useful information for our target audi-ence.

Moreover, the nature of one’s writ-ing typically depends on the spe-cific goal for the writing project. We, as writers and read-ers, should consider planning our work carefully, in order to assess what information our users might actually seek from our client’s documents or webpages. Depending on whether we are hired to write for a client, our employer, or for our own purposes, the nature of our writing should be

Figure 1.1 Information Fluency ProcessFigure 1.1 Information Fluency ProcessFigure 1.1 Information Fluency ProcessFigure 1.1 Information Fluency ProcessFigure 1.1 Information Fluency ProcessFigure 1.1 Information Fluency ProcessFigure 1.1 Information Fluency ProcessFigure 1.1 Information Fluency Process

6

borne by understanding our client’s and/or the users’ needs, defining the mission critical content for the writing project, careful planning, thorough research, and application of the information into our communications.

In addition, writers recognize that the nature of what we are writing should also take into consideration our client/employer’s institutionalized morals and values. Often, when writers produce documents for a business or established institution, the nature of our work might include perpetuat-ing and communicating the client’s image or brand that the client/employer advertises or upholds with its customers.

Finally, since gathering information (research) is a compo-nent of Information Fluency, it is our recommendation that writers using this manual also refer to the chapter on Re-search and Library Skills for further information on re-searching.

PHYSICAL VS. DIGITAL INFORMATION

Information Fluency can be a difficult concept to grasp. This is especially true when one has to use different media plat-forms and formats of technology. According to Illinois State University, “Information Fluency is the ability to critically think while engaging with, creating, and utilizing informa-tion and technology regardless of format or platform. Specifically, an information fluent individual is able to: Dis-cover, identify, and retrieve information from multiple venues and in multiple formats” (1). In other words, an indi-vidual who is information fluent should be able to excel us-ing the two types of document formats: digital and physical.

Both of these documents have their pros and cons and it is up to an individual to know which type works best for them. Currently, most users tend to prefer digital information over

7

physical because of its ease of access. This, however, should not discourage users from physical documents.

PHYSICAL INFORMATION

Miles A. Kimball and Ann R. Hawkins in Document Design define printed information as “any document marked in some kind of ink on a physical page, usually made of paper, cardboard, or plastic” (75). Simply, printed information is anything that can be considered a hard copy document. They vary from books, newspaper, journals, magazines, handouts, and even interviews. One of the more significant pros of printed information is its durability. It requires a lot of force to destroy a printed document. Meanwhile, digital documents tend to be very fragile, and can succumb to any slight misfortunes. Another quality of printed information is that it lacks the search features that digital documents tend to have. While this disheartens some users, it can actually be helpful to most. For instance, most users who read physi-cal documents tend to learn and memorize the information they were searching for. This is because printed documents require the user to read, scan, and skim for the information that they require.

One of the second most valuable qualities of printed docu-ments is their credibility. Most books, newspapers, journals, and even interviews are conducted by experts or profession-als. This fact alone is enough to give users a sense of reas-surance when it comes to the information and the informa-tion that they are researching. This is important for an in-formation fluent individual. An information fluent individual needs factual information and almost all physical documents are fact checked before they are printed.

The cons of printed documents, however, is their lack of mobility and bulk of information. According to Miles A. Kim-ball and Ann R. Hawkins in Document Design, “for the most part, physical documents must be physically carried from

8

one place to another, usually through shipping, mail, or di-rect distribution” (78). This creates a big problem for most users. Ease of access is something that is required for an information fluent individual and printed documents are hard to come by. It requires users to either wait a mid to long period of time, or have them travel. Another con is the amount of information inside of printed documents. While an information fluent individual should be able to skim, scan, and read printed documents to find the information required – they are usually pressed for time. Despite printed documents having a table of contents section, index, and even a glossary, it still requires a lot of time by the user.

DIGITAL INFORMATION

First, Miles A. Kimball and Ann R. Hawkins define digital information in Document Design as “any document con-veyed to a user through an electronic viewing interface, such as a computer monitor or digital projector” (75). Digi-tal information has become one of the best sources of infor-mation for an information fluent individual. A lot of the me-dia devices commonly used today are platforms for digital information. These include ipods, cellphones, laptops, tablets, and many others. Despite their ease of access, these devices can cause problems for users who prefer digital documents over physical. One of the biggest cons in terms of digital information is that it requires an internet connec-tion. Despite the internet being accessible in a variety of areas, such documents are usually inaccessible by the user or are unusable due to internet connectivity issues. One of these issues is speed. Without a strong and fast connection, it could take up to a few hours for a user to access the infor-mation that he/she requires.

Another hindering quality of digital information is its frailty. First, the information can easily be corrupted. Second, the device needed to access the information can be destroyed.

9

Lastly, the information can be subject to viruses and mal-ware. There is also the possibility that the information is not factual. Most digital documents are uploaded by users from around the world. This can cause problems for an informa-tion fluent individual because he/she would need to fact check all documents found through a digital platform before considering the information in the document.

Nevertheless, an information fluent individual can easily see through the cons of digital documents and learn to use them correctly. He/she can easily fact check digital documents and find the information he/she requires instantly due to its ease of access. Digital documents are also very portable, and come in a variety of sizes. Most digital documents pro-vide users with a search feature which makes navigating through the document much easier and can narrow down their search to the information that they need.

SEARCH TOOLS

According to Jennifer Sharkey in her article “Establishing Twenty-First-Century Information Fluency,” students gener-ally struggle with “weeding out non-relevant sources.” That is to say, students struggle with assessing the relevance of a source. This is where being fluent in search tools matters most. By playing tools off one another, a researcher will be able to determine when a source is irrelevant. Using a broad search tool, even if it is a broad database like JSTOR, will return information from a variety of disciplines. While this can be great for doing multi-disciplinary research that looks at a topic from multiple points of view, it also clutters your search results with irrelevant articles returned only because of a tangential connection through a single key-word. However, by using both broad research tools and dis-cipline specific ones, a research database can begin to weed

10

out these irrelevant results by recognizing the disciplinary perspective from its written from.

This sort of research takes researchers beyond the “graz-ing” stage that Sharkey mentions, diving deeper research-ing pool. Diving deeper not only returns better sources, but also contextualizes the topic amongst work already done, making researches more fluent in both their topic and the research process itself. Each individual research tool, then, has its own role to play in the research process, with vary-ing degrees deficiency in different areas.

Knowing which tool to use, however, is only one area of In-formation Fluency. How you use that tool will dramatically impact the results of your searches. Sharkey notes that with the ubiquity of free search engines, like Google, the “use of natural language search strings [and] selection of top hits” have become typical of students’ search habits, but doing just these things will not give a researcher the deeper un-derstanding necessary to producing high quality work. The selection of keywords, then, and use of Boolean terms will become the determining factor in whether research is thor-ough or surface-level.

GOOGLE

As much as your research should always include academic and peer-reviewed sources, using free search engines re-main helpful in determining where, specifically to focus your efforts. Free-search engines work well for their in-tended purpose of returning a broad arrays of results in re-sponse to both natural language strings and specific key-words. They can work great for deciding which direction to take your general idea. They can even occasionally return credible sources that you can include in your research. However, for academic research, free search engines should generally be avoided.

11

The old wisdom regarding free search engines was that any-one can put up a website and say whatever they want, and that is still true. But there is a new problem with search en-gines, especially the beloved Google. As Eli Pariser talks about in his TED2011 talk entitled “Beware Online ‘Filter Bubbles,’” many commercial search tools now attempt to return search results based on your past browsing histories, your location, your browser, and many, many more factors. This means that your results to a search query may look very different from somebody else.

Pariser’s idea of the “filter bubble” has long reaching ef-fects on your ability to use commercial, free search engines for your academic research, limiting your ability to fluently filter through the results these return. Information Fluency and research necessitate the ability to access a wide variety of sources, therefore a tailored search result, that returns only what an algorithm thinks you might want to see based on past and present performance, will not be able to return the variety of sources necessary for high quality research.

This is not to put anyone off using free search engines en-tirely. This is only to say that researchers must take this development into account when choosing which free search engines to use. In choosing which to use, researchers must choose ones that are going to fit their needs. If the hypo-thetical researcher has already done significant amounts of research online, then tailored results may actually help them do preliminary research. On the other hand, if the re-searcher does not have that kind of browsing history, as is the case with most students, choosing an engine that re-turns more neutral results will be more effective.

Google Scholar

The exception to avoiding free search engine results for academic purposes, however, is Google Scholar. Google scholar works much like JSTOR does, returning results from

12

a broad collection of academic resources. This makes it a much better choice than a free-search engine. Scholar even includes the ability to save articles to a library associated with your Gmail account, and a tool to help academics track when their publication are cited in other publications. Like JSTOR, though, Scholar searches are best done with thoughtful and specific keywords, as it returns such a broad array of results.

LIBRARY RESOURCES

While free engines like Google and Google Scholar are good for preliminary research, resources from the UCF Library should make up the bulk of your material. Besides the knowledgeable staff at the Knowledge Commons desk (a great place to find additional resources you may not have thought of), the libraries online databases and catalog can return more credible results than a free search engine ever will. The library even includes resource guides that help you find your way in a variety of disciplines. These resources far outnumber the kinds of resources found elsewhere and their effective use make up an important part of Information Flu-ency.

Library Catalogs

Starting with the databases can be tempting, but if you are doing research in the library itself then it makes sense to take advantage of the physical resources around you. Using books in the library can help you contextualize your topic by providing a broader range of information. But pulling a book off the shelf can be intimidating if you are not fluent in finding the information you need out of them. Where you start will be up to you, but starting in the index or the table of contents is usually a safe bet, but limiting your search to only the keywords you know may cause you to miss a plethora of information that you hadn’t thought to look for.

13

What’s great about using books for research is that they can help you focus your search in areas you hadn’t thought of. Looking over the index can give you keywords that you can then plug back into database and catalog searches. This is what Information Fluency is about, the ability to effectively use resources to find information, but it’s not just the index that can improve your Information Fluency. Simply flipping through the pages may find you serendipitously stumbling on an important piece of information that another re-searcher may have highlighted. Looking for these sorts of marks is almost like a sort of analog crowdsourcing of what’s important in the book.

There is a few ways to search the catalog at the UCF Li-brary. The easiest is to just plug your terms into the One-Search bar on the libraries home page, and then filter to catalog. If you do not like your results, you could also click on “Books/Catalogs” to the right of that can search the li-braries physical and digital reserves. Either way, your search will benefit from the techniques that we will discuss later.

If you think you may want to use a particular book, but the UCF Library does not have it, then you may want to try to get it through the Interlibrary Loan system where another library will send it to the UCF Library for you to use.

Articles & Databases

The Articles and Databases searches at the library are where the most efficient and effective results are going to come from. The UCF Library subscribes to many databases. There are hundreds of possible databases to choose from, some discipline specific, like the MLA databases, and some that aggregate a multitude of disciplines, like Academic OneFile and JSTOR.

14

If you are researching a particular subject but are not sure which databases to use, the UCF Library will assist you. Af-ter you click Articles & Databases on the library’s home page you’ll find collections and suggestions for a range of subjects. If you are looking for a particular subject then you may want to start at the drop down menu’s or one of the helpful subject links below that. If you already know what you want to use then you can go ahead and click the first letter of the database you want (below the subject drop-down) and browse until you find the one you want.

Being able to effectively use these databases is probably going to be the determining factor in your level of Informa-tion Fluency. The best practice, here, is to always use multi-ple databases in your research, and vary your search terms to find different information. JSTOR will give you results that MLA International Bibliography will not. Not because one is necessarily better than the other, but because they aggregate different articles. Reading as many different arti-cles as you can, as long as they are relevant and useful, will produce higher quality research, as you’ll be able to deter-mine the conflicting views within a topic and produce better results.

Research Guides

The UCF Library provides Research Guides for various sub-jects in a myriad of disciplines. These tend to focus on more specific topics and are a good way to get your research started. They can provide issues within a subject, books & encyclopedias, dissertations, data, news, literature, techni-cal reports, databases, and more. If you are not particularly information fluent, or you just want to research a topic you are less familiar with, these guides can be a good way to start. They are easily found on the library’s home page.

Research Consultations

15

Lastly, if you need help doing extensive and in-depth re-search you may want to consider setting up a one-on-one appointment with a librarian to help you find more re-sources. Information Fluency involves being able to fluently use all of you resources on hand, so as UCF student this may be one to consider. There are a few ways to sign up which can be found in the Research Consultation page in the “Services” dropdown on the UCF Library’s website.

EFFECTIVE SEARCHING

Up until now we have discussed the resources side of Infor-mation Fluency available to UCF students, but there’s a lit-tle more to it than that. Just because you have the tool avail-able does not mean you are going to be using it in the best way possible. Ultimately, the way your search is going to make a significant difference in what materials you come up with. We have already discussed using multiple resources to find different results and finding keywords in indexes, but we haven’t talked about narrowing searches or using Bool-ean terms.

Narrowing your Search

When you are using Google, it often becomes habitual to use natural language search strings (ie. searches that sound like how you might talk), but that’s missing out on the power of some search systems. Some people know that you can have an engine search exactly the terms you type by using quotation marks, but there’s more to it than that. For example, using plus signs (+term) will tell the engine to in-clude commonly ignored words, while using a minus sign (-term) will tell it to exclude that term. The latter works great for filtering out results that you know are irrelevant to your search, thus saving you time and effort while doing your research.

16

If your search engine allow you to search multiple subjects with some Boolean operators, like author, title, and journal title, then doing so should help you to find exactly what you are looking for.

Boolean Operators

Boolean operators further refine your search terms. You can refer to the below chart, taken from a CSA database, for an explanation of the terms.

Use ToAND Narrow search and retrieve records containing all

of the words it separates.OR Broaden search and retrieve records containing

any of the words it separates. The | can be used instead of ‘or.’

NOT Narrow search and retrieve records that do not contain the term following it.

() Group words or phrases when combining Bool-ean phrases and to show the order in which the relationships should be considered: e.g., ‘(mouse or mice) and (gene or pseudo gene)

NEAR

Find words within 10 words of each other.

* Truncation. This expands a search term to in-clude all forms of a root word, e.g., patent* re-trieves patent, patents, patentable, patented, etc.

* Multi-character wildcard for finding alterna-tive spellings. Use to indicate an unlimited num-ber of characters within a word, e.g., behavi*r re-trieves behavior or behavior.Single-character wildcard for finding alterna-tive spellings. The ? represents a single charac-ter; two ?? represent two characters; three ??? represent three characters, and so on. Use within or at the end of a word, e.g., wom?n finds

17

woman as well as women, and carbon fib?? finds carbon fiber or carbon fibre.

ETHICS AND FOLLOWING LAWS

Information Fluency is a part of a wide spectrum of rules, guidelines and ownership laws that are needed to validate and prove one’s own work. Therefore, you must provide sources that relate to your subject. You must know what sources to search for before you begin writing and how to use them properly. Citations for those sources need to be well communicated and written in your own words. In addi-tion, you must know the proper ways to cite your sources so that your reader will not be confused. Therefore, due to copyright laws, publications must be acknowledged within your writing. If you do so when writing, you will have a bet-ter understanding of how copyright works. Ethics and fol-lowing laws will help you to find where the information was found and will enable you to genuinely prove your sources.

WHY USE SOURCES?

We use sources to obtain ideas and go past our own knowl-edge and understanding of information we come across. They are used to make arguments and research to show that you understand what you have learned or discovered. Finally, sources enhance your writing and make it easier for others to make sense of your work while also giving our readers access to more information on that particular sub-ject.

18

In The Writer Site by the University of Sydney, under mod-ule two, it states that “When you write in an academic con-text, you are not writing for yourself. You become a member of an academic community which has particular expecta-tions, including expectations about honesty and rigor in aca-demic research and writing.” It is very important to identify and gather the appropriate sources for your work and to know how to use the sources properly. Professors will give you material to break down and understand at a higher level and they will also want you to prove your knowledge through your own research as your writing should not be dependent on your own opinion alone. The University says that instead, readers need to know that your writing has exceeded your own level of understanding for that material.

Know What to Look For

When looking up sources, you need to begin with your sub-ject and anything that pertains to your topic within that sub-ject. You need to make sure it is quality work from a credi-ble place. Having a primary source is very useful but make sure you have secondary sources as well to support what you have found. Your sources should come from a scholarly source such as articles, journals, short stories, and books.

Use Your Sources Properly

After you have found the sources that you need, you can begin to think of how to use them in a scholarly manner. The University of Sydney acknowledges that when you write about a topic you are not only representing the work of oth-ers, you are also writing to present your own inferences and using their help in making strong persuasive arguments to support your own evaluations and conclusions. You must show that the work is your own and that you have obtained your research from trustworthy resources. If your sources are not properly cited, the reader may think that your work is not complete or trustworthy.

19

WHY USE CITATIONS?

Citations are useful when you are trying to formally express your ideas, the citations show the location of your source and how you are indebted to it says Judy Hunter the writer of The Importance of Citation, she states that “A citation can appear in different formats: within the text (in-text cita-tion) at the bottom of the page (footnotes), or at the end of the paper (endnotes). Different disciplines use different for-mats. The mechanics of citing are complicated, and vary in each format.” Additionally, how you cite a source varies from the method you use. For example, MLA and APA are two different styles of documentation that are commonly used in schools and colleges. However, for the sake of this manual, we will tell you how to cite a source in MLA style.

Hunter states that when you do not cite your sources, you are violating the rights of the actual person who created the idea (1). If you decide to use a writer’s work, you must cite him/her. If you fail to do so, you are violating that person’s work. Another reason for citations, Hunter says, is that “keeping track of sources is important because academics value being able to trace the way ideas develop” (2). It also helps a reader find the information by having the creden-tials of the source that was listed. The reader is then able to see where your ideas came from and it allows him/her to understand them on a broader scale.

In Line Citations

In the text, A Writer’s Reference, Diana Hacker states that an in text citation is made with a combination of signal phrases and parenthetical references. She goes on to ex-plain that “a signal phrase indicates that something taken from a source (a quotation, a summary, paraphrase, or fact) is about to be used; usually the signal phrase includes the author’s name” (370). After a citation, you would normally

20

include the page number. If there is no page number, a sim-ple “1” in parenthesis will suffice.

Quotations

If you use direct words from another’s work you must en-compass them with quotation marks. Without the quotation marks, you are stating that the author’s words are only your words.

Block Quotations

Block quoting is when you offset a quote (about an inch of space) that is more than four or five lines. It shows that words are being taken directly from the source of the work. Hacker states that quotation marks are unnecessary be-cause the indention is enough for the reader to know that it is a quote (364). You do not need quotation marks if you uti-lize a block quote.

Things to Avoid

When you begin to write, you must ensure that you know when quotations are needed to avoid improperly citing sources. In addition, you must include the page number you found your work on. Finally, you must ensure that you are not using the other writer’s language when you are summa-rizing his/her words to avoid plagiarism.

COPYRIGHT

Copyright grants legal rights to an individual that creates a work. I-Safe America Inc. in “Copyright Quick Reference” says it involves publication, production, sale or distribution. It states that, “Copyright laws are based on the concept that someone who creates a tangible work deserves to be com-pensated for it, thus promoting new work and benefiting society as a whole” (1). Copyright allows others to still use the work, but also generates work for others to use to ex-

21

ceed on the topic. In summary, it offers a good sense of pro-tection for writers.

Fair Use

The U.S Copyright Office has labeled fair use under section 107 of the U.S. Copyright Laws. It entails the rules that people can reuse others work, but in a fair manner. It states that “Section 107 contains a list of the various purposes for which the reproduction of a particular work may be consid-ered fair, such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research” (1). These are the few things that are considered fair use when using someone else’s ideas. Nothing is safe when you try and use another’s work. Plagiarism is seen in your writing, and there are many tools that can detect a copied document.

What is Not Protected by Copyright

It is easier to see what is not covered under the copyright laws says I-SAFE America: “Works that have not been fixed in a tangible form of expression,” “Ideas, procedures, con-cepts, principles, discoveries, or devices – as distinguished from a description, an explanation, or an illustration,” and “Works consisting entirely of information that is common property and contains no original authorship such as stand calendars, height and weight charts, tape measures and rulers, and lists or tables taken from public documents or other common sources” (1). These are a few that are not allowed to be copyrighted; they are not official documents or publications. Therefore, they do not fall under the copy-right laws.

Protection

When you elect to use copyright laws on your own papers and documents, you will be backed up by the laws that are in place. Therefore, you can feel confident that others will use your work with good intentions since it is copyrighted.

22

It ensures that you will be compensated for your work and your work alone. However, you must make sure that your work is under the guidelines to be copyrighted.

USING INFORMATION FLUENCY AS A READER VS. AS A WRITER

As you have been reading, there are a lot of research tools that surround Information Fluency. By now you may be wondering where that line draws between being a reader and being a writer. This section will focus on the distinction between the two so you can find information quickly and efficiently.

HOW AN INFORMATION FLUENT WRITER COMPOSES A DOCUMENT

Until this point, this chapter on Information Fluency has focused on skills that generally combine readers and writers since the two are so intertwined. As readers, we are proba-bly also writers and vice versa. However, as a student writer, you will be interested to know that there are tools you can use to write in an information fluent way. This is important because your writing must develop a reader-cen-tered format. Your readers need to be able to find informa-tion quickly and efficiently.

ORGANIZING INFORMATION: HEADERS, TOPIC SEN-TENCES, TABLES, AND PAGE GRIDS

Applying Information Fluency to your writing involves using tools such as headers, footers, topic sentences, tables, and page grids to organize your information and to make it eas-ier for your reader find the information he/she needs.

23

Headers and Footers

Headers and Footers allow controlled and organized fluency within the document. Headers contain information and graphics on the top of the page of the document, while foot-ers contain information and graphics on the bottom of the page. The information placed in headers and footers allow for page control and organization.

The following are typically found in headers and footers:

Name or logo

Physical line to separate the header/footer from the rest of the text in the document

Paper’s title

Section title

Date

Often, the header will contain just the name of the paper, the author, and the date, whereas the footer contains the page numbers. Word editors such as Microsoft Word or Google Docs will be able to format your header and footer for you such as adding your name, page title, and date to the header of every page and adding page numbers auto-matically in the footer of your document. Pre-made tem-plates are also an option and will format your document for you. Just replace or add the text into the template. Aes-thetically headers and footers can be justified based on your preference unless you have been instructed to format it a specific way.

Topic Sentences

A topic sentence is similar to a thesis statement for the body paragraphs of your paper. Writers use topic sentences to establish the main idea so the reader will understand what each body paragraph of the paper will be about. The sup-porting sentences of the body paragraph should further ex-

24

plain the topic sentence. Remember, that the topic sentence should not be too specific or broad. You simply want to con-vey the main idea across rather than one specific detail.

Additionally, using sequences such as First, Next, and Final will further help the transition between body paragraphs and connect them. When writing your paragraphs, you may want to start with an outline to help arrange and develop your topic sentences. Once you have established your topic sentences for each paragraph, you can use the outline as a template for your paper and add your supporting sentences. Think of a topic sentence as a mini thesis statement. There-fore, keep in mind that any information should all unify and relate.

Tables

Tables can display textual or numerical data in a set of ar-ranged rows or columns. They are similar to lists that have two dimensions rather than just one. This will allow you to organize a large amount of information in a small amount of space and allow the reader to see a specific piece of data, usually numerical, when needed. Tables are also helpful in arranging data to allow for data comparison. However, keep in mind that the design of the table is important so you should consider how the reader would want to use the infor-mation in the table.

COMPETITOR RANKING CURRENT SHARE SHARE IN 3 YRS.

Largest competitor 50% 30%

Second largest competitor 25% 20%

Third largest competitor 15% 12%

Table 1.1 Projected growth of competitors over 3 years.

Tables consist of three components. Columns are the verti-cal axis of data. Rows are the horizontal axis of data and cells are the area specifically for each data element. Since data in a table are organized not only vertically but also hor-

25

izontally, there are different ways of ordering data. Typi-cally one would order the data in the table numerically or alphabetically. The table below example contains common elements from the periodic table and is arranged alphabeti-cally by element. Numerical arrangement will be good for things such as rank and order.

Page Grids

Grids are an effective method of designing consistent pages. They divide each page into rectangular areas that help or-ganize content. They are generally straight vertical or hori-zontal lines that intersect each other on a page to help place objects.

There are different types of objects that paper can contain:

Headings

Basic test

Images

Captions

Headers and footers

Tables

Footnotes

A page grid allows you to place any of these objects in the grid fields. Using a consistent page design will create a lay-out that the reader will be able to follow. Page grids encour-age good alignment since page grids are rectilinear. Also, it provides an enclosure for design objects. Contrast, proxim-ity and order are also other organization principles page grids influence. Some word editing processors have options to add gridlines to help assist you in placing objects into the document.

26

STRATEGIES TO WRITE CLEARLY AND SUCCINCTLY

Integrating your research into your writings clearly and suc-cinctly is important to helping your reader understanding the credibility and the sources of your research, without getting bogged down in too many details. The specific way that you do this depends on the style manual you are using, but the following ideas will assist you in a general method.

Active Voice

Using active voice in your own writing is important, but be-comes doubly so when setting up who said what in a quote or paraphrase. Active voice clarifies for your reader who did what in a concise manner by not splitting up the verb and by making it clear who the subject is in the sentence. What-ever research you are using, someone implemented it. Therefore, it is ethically important that you clearly show who published that resource.

One of the most common examples of passive versus active voice is the sentence: “mistakes were made.” The agent of this sentence has been omitted, making it unclear who com-mitted the mistakes. You only know that the mistakes were committed. When integrating your sources, setting up your quote by saying “research has shown that” would be simi-larly confusing. Besides being wordy, the agent of that re-search has, again, been omitted making it unclear who per-formed that research. Even with a proper citation, the per-son who actually wrote the work may be lost in your works cited/in-text citation.

Contextualizing your Research

It may be tempting while you are writing to quote or para-phrase your research as if it spoke for itself. It does not. While you may know the context of your quote, your reader may not be as familiar with a particular source as you are. As such, you must explain all information from other

27

sources and explain their connection to your ideas. It is a simple process but doing it concisely will help your reader follow your arguments.

To that end, the writer has to make a judgment call about how much information to include. You often do not need the full quote, but you have to consider your audience/reader’s familiarity with the subject and decide what assumptions can be made (both when deciding what of the quote to in-clude and how to introduce and explain it). If you are writ-ing a paper for journal, read and reviewed by peers, then it is probably a safe assumption that you will not need to ex-plain every little detail about your argument. However, at the same time, if you think your audience might be less fa-miliar with the subject matter, then you’ll need include enough relevant information that your reader can under-stand how your source relates to your work.

EVALUATING THE CREDIBILITY OF SOURCES AS A WRITER

Evaluating sources is one of the most challenging aspects of the writing process. Writers often become so focused on their own interpretation of a topic that they forget to select and evaluate reliable outside sources. Sources do not serve to overtake a piece but highlight the writer’s creation with factual support. Once the writer feels comfortable with their topic, the reliability of their sources quickly becomes the backbone of the document. Discovering credible sources is the first step to creating factual and unbiased writing.

Beginning the Evaluation Process

Writers should primarily consider who will be seeking their text and their purpose behind doing so. Before citing a source, always consider what type of information the reader will desire. If the information is too advanced for their level of topical comprehension, the source would be useless. A

28

problem can also arise if the source provides vague and generalized information. It is important to consider the reader’s need for fluidity.

Readers seek sources that directly match and flow within the writing. Mismatched facts or interjected opinions take away from the writer’s main focus. With that in mind, seek-ing multiple credible sources is a great way of supporting ever-developing information. All writers process information differently. The writer’s personal interpretation can easily be skewed from that of a similar source. Finding a variety of reliable material that factually confirms his/her point or ar-gument supports the writer’s message and will complete the piece.

Primary vs. Secondary

The first step toward source evaluation is determining if the source is considered primary or secondary. A primary source is a first-hand account based on fact. Primary sources are normally created during or near the time period that information was determined factual. Some examples include newspaper articles, letters and government records. Primary sources are highly credible and leave little room for error or fiction. A secondary sources is one that is written after an event such as a review or biography. Secondary sources are analytical and base their information from an original primary source. They also have a greater risk for factual error because they leave more room for opinionated bias. The more a source is used over time, the less credible its sister sources become. The passage of time results in a deficit for credibility as information expands with every passing moment.

Checking for Credibility

Although information may seem credible, it never hurts to double check the source’s background. Where did you find

29

the information? When was it published? Who is the source’s author and are they well established? The more research an author conducts, the stronger their piece will become overall. It is also a good idea to evaluate the source’s sources. Not only is this a great way to ensure credibility, but it may also provide other outlets to useful sources that relate to your topic.

Check the Date

Find out when the source was written. The validity of a source is ever changing. A source may contain information that has been updated multiple times since the piece was first written. New information surfaces every day. Outdated sources may not have the factual information that has been brought to light since the source was originally published. Keeping your sources current also assists with keeping them as accurate as possible. The source may not be from last week, however, a source from 2008 may have more credibility than one from 1950.

When Selecting a Source

Pulling information from a variety of random websites may seem appealing but it is never a smart decision. The less credible your sources are, the less credible your writing be-comes. Online search engines are great for finding informa-tion quickly although it may not be accurate. Trusting the top five popular search engine results is never a scholarly choice. Writers should always strive to choose credibility over popularity when conducting research. Taking a less opinionated and more scholarly approach aids writers while simultaneously boosts overall writing quality.

Evaluating the Author

Once writers select an appropriate source, evaluating the author is the next step towards credibility. Writers are often unheard of and have little fame or history behind their

30

name. However, citing an established and well-respected writer is a great way to add extra credibility to a piece. Readers seeking factual information will devote greater trust to a writer if they acknowledge the work of a profes-sionally respected author. On the contrary, jarring informa-tion backed by unheard of sources can be concerning. Read-ers want to feel comfortable with their text. Researching your source’s authors can avoid potential curve balls related to pieces they have done in the past. Researching a source’s author is just as important as the manner in which the reader sees the writer. Writers should be able to avoid road bumps before a reader is forced to find one in the source’s history.

Evaluating Bias

Checking a source to ensure a lack of bias is necessary in the process of evaluation. The piece will be less factual as it becomes more personal. The author’s opinion is unneces-sary when writers are in search of factual or historical oc-currences. Reliability stems from fact and not opinion. Bias may not be easy to observe, but it is vital that writers check their sources to ensure that all readers can feel comfortable during the learning process. Unless the reader has picked up the piece for pleasure, pieces involving personal bias should not be regarded as credible to the writer’s audience.

The Importance of Source Evaluation

Finally, regardless of the writer’s literary approach, sources should always play a supportive and cohesive role through-out his/her writing. Text without a source is similar to opin-ion without fact. It may be informative to some readers, but others can make the personal choice to disregard it. Techni-cal writing requires substantial sourcing for accurate and positive audience acceptance. The use of properly evaluated sources presents the reader with factual evidence, which

31

the writer creates to instill credibility within the written communication.

HOW AN INFORMATION FLUENT READER FINDS APPROPRIATE INFORMATION

Now that you know some of the skills to write in an informa-tion fluent way, we will delve into tactics you can use as a reader to better sort through information.

WAYS TO FIND THE MOST IMPORANT INFORMA-TION

As a reader, you have a few tools that can help you find in-formation quickly and efficiently. In this section, we will dis-cuss three particular aids: Skimming, Scanning, and Read-ing.

Skimming

When a reader is looking for something specific in a book or document he/she will typically skim through the pages look-ing for something that will pop out. Now this does not allow the user to actually know what is going on in the document or book, but it will allows them to get the answer in a very timely manner. Headers are an example of this since the heading typically pops out more than the content itself.

Scanning

Scanning is very similar to skimming. However, this method is used to actually find good chunks of information that might possibly be used in writing. This method is very use-ful when looking up sources to cite for your work. It allows the reader to obtain some knowledge about what they are looking for. It could also create a biased output since some information could be lost in the process.

32

Reading

If the other two tactics fail and you find the section you have been scanning and skimming is not quickly providing you with useful information, you will have to actually read the information and comprehend what you are looking for. Reading all the information helps you understand and con-firm that the information is usable and pertains to the sub-ject that is being written about.

HOW TO IDENTIFY A GOOD SOURCE AS A READER

There are many factors that a reader needs to consider when evaluating a source for potential information. Such as, how easily can one find the information? Is the document well written? Does it have an easy to follow format? While this section will go over many of those questions, the most important factor to consider as a reader is to ask oneself – is the source credible?

Is the Source Credible?

An information fluent reader can easily determine whether or not a source is credible by what format it is in. If the source is in a physical format, like a book or a journal, then it is easy to find out whether it is credible or not. For the most part, it is hard for any individual to get a physical doc-ument published in modern times. Not just anyone can write a manual, a book, or even an essay and have it pub-lished by a company. All publishing companies make sure that whoever has sent a document in for publication is qual-ified. Almost all physical documents/sources are written by individuals who are qualified to write about what ever infor-mation is in their document. Most, if not all, physical docu-ments go through several levels of editing and proofing be-fore they are published. Therefore, a source is credible if it is in physical form.

33

However, most sources of information used today come from digital outlets on the internet. When looking for valid sources online, an individual should always remember that anyone can publish anything on the internet. So how does one know whether or not a source is credible online? One of the first things you should do is check to see if the web ad-dress ends in an “.edu” or a “.gov”. When a website ends in .edu it means that said site was constructed by an educa-tional facility such as a college or a university. When a web-site ends in “.gov” it means that the site was constructed for or by a government office or agency. These kinds of web-sites are the most credible because of their professional standing. While all other websites could have potential in-formation worth citing as a source, they should be evalu-ated carefully.

A Good Source Always has an Author

This is another important factor when determining the value of a source. An information fluent individual should always use sources that have an author or a series of authors at-tached to it. This is an important element when deciding if a source is “good” because a reader can research the author and see if he/she has credibility. In other words, one can check the author's credentials. This can be very useful when it comes to digital documents because, while all physical documents have authors, most digital documents do not. Therefore, you should almost always use sources that have an author attached to them.

A Good Source is Unbiased

A good source always gives the reader facts. It does not push any agendas, and it is not opinion based. Good sources are never opinion driven and those that are, should not be used unless otherwise necessary. This is because an infor-mation fluent individual wants well-researched ideas and

34

information, and not opinion based information that could end up being false.

A Good Source Always Uses Proper Language

A valuable source is usually written using academic and technical language. The language is what sets a good source apart from a bad one. As mentioned earlier, most good sources are written by scholars and professionals, who have the qualifications to write and report valid and valu-able information. However, a good source can also be writ-ten in a simple easy to understand manner, but you should always evaluate the language being used.

A Good Source Has an Easy to Follow Style

The last and most important fact in determining whether a source is valuable or not is determining whether or not it has a good format. This of course will vary depending on the reader, but for an information fluent individual this is what a good source looks like.

A good source will often display its information in an easy to grasp manner. The reader does not have to spend too much time looking for it. While an information fluent individual should be able to find what they are looking for quickly, he/she should stick to documents that can provide the informa-tion they need faster.

A good source will not have a choppy and undefined format. If the source does not seem to have a well-constructed structure, it is probably not a good source. An information fluent individual should use sources that are organized and carefully constructed. If the formatting seems choppy, then it was most likely not done by a scholar or professional and therefore should not be considered credible or useful.

35

What to Do if You Are Unsure

If you are unsure, just apply the above methods of evalua-tion. If the source does not meet any of these criteria guide-lines, then you should move on to another source. An infor-mation fluent individual only uses good sources. Good sources should be credible, written by an author, factual instead of opinion driven, and have a structured format.

FINAL WORDS

INFORMATION FLUENCY: A SMOOTH PATH TO SUC-CESS

Information Fluency allows individuals to have a smooth and information filled path to success. It is a widely applied resource that readers rely on during everyday studies. Flu-ency may not seem apparent, but it is everywhere as you march through your daily routine. Thinking critically, writ-ers are able to not only gain from what they learn but apply for their own future use. It is easy to skim information for temporary use but Information Fluency allows readers to absorb and put their learned information into action. The more a writer puts into a piece, the easier it will be for a reader to obtain long term knowledge.

Information Fluency is made up of two main components, Information and Fluency. It is important not only to relay information but to gain from it. The more a writer learns about a specific topic, the greater reputation he/she will gain. Readers appreciate and cling to writers with obvious backgrounds and extensive knowledge on their desired top-ics. Writers may not feel that their subjective knowledge matters, but it will show throughout the document as read-ers learn to become fluent.

Fluency is the overall ability to communicate a clear mes-sage to readers. Writers must consider all aspects of their

36

topic and clearly map out a literary path for their readers. Fluency allows the reader to easily transition from one sec-tion to another without missing any information. Readers seek Information Fluency not only as a method of seeking knowledge but retaining it. Learning to learn is the first step to putting a writer’s piece to use, not just skimming over pages in random order.

Writers strive to successfully establish a desired level of communication with their readers. A partnership via text is created as they conquer a deep level of conceptual under-standing. The more effort a writer puts into their piece, the greater level of understanding will be given to their reader. Heavy research is necessary for writers to support and con-firm their arguments. Readers seek a fluent chain of knowl-edge. Sources and citations are a great way to reassure readers that the information they are being presented with is valid. A reader should not have to set aside one piece for further confirmation from another. Information Fluency al-lows readers to have a complete understanding as they be-gin to dive into a topic.

Both writers and readers should follow the Gather, Evalu-ate, and Use Model. The more information that is gathered, the clearer the material will be to evaluate and the easier it will be to eventually use. Projects should be time consuming and carefully planned. Sticking to a plan creates fluency on its own. If a writer has a fluent plan of action, the piece will begin to flow on its own. Proper planning helps to develop a well-rounded project. Readers avoid jumbled and poorly outlined pieces. A well-organized document is a must have when creating a reader centered project. Readers may not always dig into a writer’s work. They often skim or scan a document before they begin reading it. They see proper headers, footers, and tables as initial signs of an informative read. In addition, readers are drawn to eye catching topic sentences as they initially skim through a project’s text. Giv-

37

ing readers these courteous signs will make them more in-terested in what a writer has to say.

Technology has been both a gift and curse to our literary world. The internet is filled with valuable sources and never ending information. As long as we check our sources and follow a fluent train of thought, we can gain an abundance of knowledge from today’s technological resources. Apply-ing your knowledge of Information Fluency on the web will keep you on the right track.

A successful writer should always consider the reader or clients’ morals and values. Therefore, establishing a piece fit for your audience is key to a successful project. The more information you know about your readers, the greater satis-faction you can give them. Some readers are looking for a specific flow and writers are able to base their fluency around what they are looking for.

Writers may be unsure if their piece has Information Flu-ency. In this case, it is important to take a step back and consider the audience. The audience is seeking proper and unbiased language. Sources should be evaluated for credi-bility and established authorship. Information Fluency not only collects critical thinking skills but allows the reader to put them to use. Following the fluency guidelines is a neces-sary and substantial way to create a successful project.

38

REFERENCES

"Beware Online "Filter Bubbles" TED2011. TED, 2011. Web. 20 July 2014.

Boolean Operators. n.d. Web. 15 July 2014.

<http://www.csa.com/help/Search_Tools/boolean_operators.html>.

"Copyright Quick Reference." (n.d.): 1-2. Isafe.org. ISafe. Web. 19 July 2014.

"Fair Use." Copyright. U.S. Copyright Office, June 2012. Web. 17 July 2014.

Hunter, Judy. "The Importance of Citation." (n.d.): 1-5. Grinnell.edu. Grinnell Col-

lege. Web. 19 July 2014.

“Information Fluency Definition and Learning Outcomes.” Milner Library. Illinois

State University. n.d. Web. 14 July 2014

"Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education." American

Library Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 July 2014.

Kimball, Miles A., and Ann R. Hawkins. Document Design: A Guide for Technical

Communicators. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2008. Print.

"Presidential Committee on Information Literacy: Final Report." American Library

Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 July 2014

"Primary vs Secondary Sources." Princeton University. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 July

2014.

Sharkey, Jennifer; O'Connor, Lisa. “Establishing 21st Century Information Flu-

ency.” University of Central Florida Libraries. Reference & User Services

Quarterly. Fall 2013, Vol. 53, Issue 1, p33-39. PDF document. Web. 14

July. 2014.

“Test Your Research Skills.” 21st Century Information Fluency. n.d. Web. 5 July.

2014.

Thomas, Susan. "BMCC Library." Research Help - Primary vs. Secondary Sources.

A. Philip Randoph Memorial Library, n.d. Web. 15 July 2014.

Turner, Dorothy. "Writing Paragraphs.” The Writing Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 July

2014.

"Undergraduate Studies & Affiliated Units." Information Fluency. The University of

Central Florida, n.d. Web. 19 July 2014.

University of Central Florida. The Office of Undergraduate Studies. Information

Fluency. n.d. Web. 5 July. 2014.

39

Wells, Jaclyn M. "Welcome to Purdue OWL Engagement." Purdue OWL Engage-

ment. Ed. Allen Brizee. Perdue University, 7 Aug. 2009. Web. 19 July

2014.

"Why and How to Use Sources." The Write Site. The University of Sydney, n.d.

Web. 19 July 2014.