Chapter 4 Syntax

Objectives

1. To understand the definition of syntax

2. To study 2 ways of analyzing sentence structure

3. To learn about the syntactical relationships

1. Definition of Syntax

A subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Specifically, it studies the combination of words to form sentences and the rules governing the formation.

2. IC AnalysisThis is a structuralist way of analyzing the structure of a sentence: break a sentence down to its constituent elements until the smallest grammatical units, i.e. morphemes are obtained. e.g. Poor|| John| ran|| away. constituent

immediate constituents ultimate constituents

poor John, ran away poor, John, ran, away

1. It helps to account for the ambiguity of certain constructions.

e.g. The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son.

2. It clearly demonstrates that sentences are not mere left-to-right linear sequences of elements. Instead, elements come into relationships of great complexity and varying kinds.

( 胡壮麟， P125-126)

Advantages of IC analysis

“the daughter of Pharaoh’s son” is ambiguous:

= （ 1 ） The daughter of Pharaoh’s son 法老儿子的女儿（孙女）= （ 2 ） The daughter of Pharaoh’s son 法老女儿的儿子（外孙）

Disadvantages of IC Analysis

1. It results in technical problems due to discontinuous constituents.

e.g. Leave + the book+ on the shelf.

2. It can result in ambiguity problems. e.g. the love of God =God loves (man) or =(man) loves God the shooting of the hunters =the hunters shot (sth. or sb.) =somebody shot the hunters

3. Syntactic Analysis

This is a generative way of analyzing the structure of a sentence: break a sentence down into its component parts of speech with an explanation of the form, function, and syntactical relationship of each part.

In order to analyze a sentence, traditional grammarians categorize English lexical items into eight classes (parts of speech): nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. by using different criteria.

Common Categorization Criteria

1. Phonological Criteria -- based on word stress --- based on word stress

e.g. To in'crease the number of students, we need an 'increase in funding.

2. Semantic Criteria -- based on meaninge.g. Flying planes can be dangerous.

--- if you live under the flight path.

--- if you haven’t got a pilot’s license.

3. Notional Criteria -- based on denotation

Class DenotationNoun entity (car, house, Mr. Bean)Verb action (eat, push, sleep)Adjective state (green, happy, sleepy)Adverb manner in which the action is done (smoothly, quickly)Preposition denotation of position (from the back)

Determiner a word which specifies (this lecture)

Common Categorization Criteria

4. Morphological Criteria– based on meaningful endings

e.g. word words computer computers people peoples

Words that have a similar morphological behavior are put in the same category. There will be exceptions, but this does not invalidate the general method.

Common Categorization Criteria

5. Distributive Criteria – based on location of appearance

e.g. Everyone likes bear. Everyone likes cars. Everyone likes Harry Potter. *Everyone likes eats.

Evidence is found by examining the position in which words can occur in a sentence: known as the distribution of words.

All words of a similar class should seem naturally intuitive and words that don’t fit can be used to construct other classes.

* means the sentence is ungrammatical.

Common Categorization Criteria

In order to analyze a sentence syntactically, it is necessary to categorize lexical items in terms of their grammatical properties.

A syntactic category is a category of lexical items having the same grammatical properties.

The categorization is based on similar structure and sameness of distribution (the structural relationships between these elements and other items in a larger grammatical structure), and not on meaning.

In generative grammar, a syntactic category is symbolized by a node label in a constituent structure tree.

Common Syntactic Categories

1. S

2. Phrase Structure

It stands for “sentence”, the largest category capable of syntactic categorization.

e.g. --I saw a big aeroplane. (declarative)

--How large is the plane? (interrogative)

--If only I could fly that plane! (subjunctive)

--Please have your luggage checked before

boarding. (imperative)

1. S

2. Phrase Structure

N V A P word level

NP VP AP PP phrase level

NP stands for “Noun Phrase”

--defined as a category that can bear some

grammatical function in a sentence,

e.g. as subject or direct object.

Types of NP

NP NP NP NP

N Pron. Det N Det Adj N

John he, we, she a, the, apple the red apple this, that NP NP

Det N PP NP S

a story about the hero the person who talked to me

VP stands for “Verb Phrase” --a category consisting of a verb, its complements and its adjuncts.

e.g. --John put the book on the table. (the book and on the table are complements of

put.) --The girl saw a woman in the park with a telescope. (in the park and with the telescope are the adjuncts of saw.)

Types of VP VP VP VP

V NP V PP V S

hit the ball speak about the book said that he had told lies VP VP

V Adv V run fast Look!

PP stands for “Prepositional Phrase”

--a phrase containing a preposition and a noun phrase.

e.g. --on the table

--in the park

--with a telescope

It is possible to have a PP within a PP:

e.g. --in the park with a telescope

PP AP

P NP Deg Adj

about the book very little

We are not ready to start syntactic analysis of

sentences just yet. We need Syntactic Rules too.

Syntactic Rules

1. The S Rule

2. Phrase Structure Rules

3. XP Rule

4. Coordination Rule

5. Transformational Rules

6. Passive Transformational Rule

1. The S Rule

A boy found the

S

NP VP

N V N

S NP+VPNB: “” =consists of

Det Det

evidence

NP

2. Phrase Structure Rules

NP (Det) N (NP)…

VP (Qual) V (NP)...

AP (Det) A (PP) …

PP (Det) P (NP) …

NB: “” =consists of

“( )” = optional

“…” = other complements available

3. XP Rule

To simplify the Phrase Structure rule, “X” is employed in the same way as in math to stand for the heads of Noun, Verb, Adjective and Preposition. Hence,

XP (specifier) X (complement)

NB: “X” = head (N, V, A, P)

“( )” = optional

(a difficult) question (about chemistry)

(specifier) X (complement)

e.g.

The XP Rule seems to be powerful enough to cover all phrase structures. However, there are structures in the English language that are greater than a word but smaller than a phrase.

e.g.

1. I often eat pie, but Susan rarely does so.

2. I have never seen this very tall girl before.

In order to analyze such structures, we need the X-

bar Theory.

X¯ Theory

X-bar Theory is a component of linguistic theory which attempts to identify syntactic features common to all languages. It correctly represents constituents smaller than XP but bigger than X.

a. XP = (specifier) + X¯

b. X¯ = X + (complement)

XP

Specifier

X¯

X (head) Complement

Phrase level

VP

V NP

Det N

does so

The boxed area is not a syntactic unit.

S

NP VP V-Bar specifier head Complement

Susan rarely does so

The boxed area is now a syntactic unit

The boxed area is not a syntactic unit.

The boxed area is now a syntactic unit

4. Coordination Rule

X X * Con X

NB: X = category at any structural level,

X/XP can be coordinated.

* = more than one category can occur

to the left of the Conjunction.

(p.48)

5. Transformational Rules

A. Auxiliary Movement: Move Infl to the left of the subject NP

Inversion: CP (Complement Phrase) S C NP Infl VP

e N will arrive

John

Inversion (revised): Move Infl to C

One application only.

The teacher wonders [CP if should his student _____ stay].

*

NB: Complementizers and auxiliaries are mutually exclusive.

B. DO Insertion CP (2) S

C NP Infl VP

N e V

birds do fly

Do Insertion (1) CP

C S

N V

Infl

(do)Birdsfly

NP VP

C. Wh MovementHe bought what. What did he buy? CP

C S

e NP Infl VP

N pst V NP

he did buy what

6. Passive Transformational Rule

NP1 + Infl + VP (V + NP2)NP1 + Infl + VP (V + NP2)

NP2 + Infl + be + en + by + NP1NP2 + Infl + be + en + by + NP1 Mary pst be see by John

John pst see Mary

4. Syntactic Relationship

A. Endocentric ConstructionB. Exocentric ConstructionC. Paradigmatic RelationshipD. Syntagmatic Relationship

A. Endocentric Construction

-- One whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to the head, one of its constituents.

e.g.

John = Poor John (syntactically equivalent,

with Poor endocentric to John )

ran = ran away (away is endocentric to ran)

Endocentric Construction

Subordinate Coordinate

books on the shelf boys and girls will have been serving coffee or tea

B. Exocentric Construction

--- One in which no single constituent is functionally equivalent to the whole construction.

e.g.

on the shelf,

If he is going, (no noticeable head)

The girl smiled. (not mutually substitutable)

C. Paradigmatic Relationship

--- A relationship where an individual sign may be replaced by another.

For example, individual letters have a paradigmatic relationship with other letters. Letters and numbers do not have a paradigmatic relationship.

Paradigmatic relationships are typically associative, in that both items are in a single membership set.

D. Syntagmatic Relationship

-- A relationship where signs occur in sequence or parallel and operate together to create meaning.

Thus, the letters in a word have a syntagmatic relationship with one another, as do the words in a sentence.

Syntagmatic relationships are often governed by strict rules, such as spelling and grammar. They can also have less clear relationships, such as those of fashion and social meaning.

Homework

Explain the syntactical differences of the two sentences:

(1) John is easy to please. (2) John is eager to please.