Chapter 4: MOTIVATION THROUGH FEELINGS OF CONTROL Everything’s under control!

Chapter 4:MOTIVATION THROUGH FEELINGS OF CONTROL

Everything’s under control!

Theories of Exercise Behaviour

Belief-AttitudeTheories

Competence-BasedTheories

Control-BasedTheories

Stage-BasedTheories

Example:Theory of

Planned Behaviour

Example:Self-Efficacy

Theory

Example:Self-Determination

Theory

Example:Transtheoretical

Model

HybridModels

Example:HAPA

Chapter 4: Aims

• to develop an understand of intrinsic motivation, including Self-Determination Theory

• to understand the construct of locus of control and its application to physical activity

• to consider the basic principles of attribution theory and perceptions of control and their application to health and physical activity

• to understand the role of beliefs concerning athletic ability in motivation for physical activity

Perceptions of Control

• Skinner’s model:

• agent-means-end model

• beliefs associated with the model

MEANS(BEHAVIOUR)

AGENT(PERSON)

CAPACITYBELIEFS

ENDS(OUTCOMES)

MEANS(BEHAVIOUR)

STRATEGYBELIEFS

ENDS(OUTCOMES)

AGENT(PERSON)

CONTROLBELIEFS

AGENT-MEANS-ENDS ANALYSIS

CAPACITYBELIEFS

STRATEGYBELIEFS

CONTROLBELIEFSAGENT ENDS

MEANS

[PERSON]

[BEHAVIOUR]

[OUTCOMES]

COGNITIVE EVALUATION THEORY

Cognitive Evaluation Theory:Basic principles 1

• The relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation was thought to be quite simple - 'more' motivation would result from adding extrinsic to existing intrinsic motivation!

• Studies then questioned whether intrinsic motivation could be undermined by the use of extrinsic rewards

• CET proposed that variations in individuals' feelings of competence and perceptions of autonomy will produce variations in intrinsic motivation

Cognitive Evaluation Theory:Basic principles 2

• Providing individuals with rewards for their participation in an already interesting activity often leads to a decrease in intrinsic motivation

• This is called the ‘overjustification effect’• this is due to a shift in perceived locus of causality (PLOC)• individuals who have an internal PLOC for performing an

activity shift their locus of causality to a more external orientation when they received a reward, and consequently their intrinsic motivation decreases

• but is this always the case?

CET: Controlling and informational functions of rewards

• Cognitive Evaluation Theory states that rewards are likely to serve two main functions:

• Information function. If the reward provides information about the individuals' competence then it is quite likely that intrinsic motivation can be enhanced with rewards.

• Controlling function. If the rewards are seen to be controlling behaviour (i.e., the goal is to obtain the reward rather than participate for intrinsic reasons), then withdrawal of the reward is likely to lead to subsequent decreases in intrinsic motivation.

CET: Three propositions (Deci & Ryan, 1985)

• Proposition 1. “External events relevant to the initiation and regulation of behaviour will affect a person's intrinsic motivation to the extent that they influence the perceived locus of causality for that behaviour. Events that promote a more external locus of causality will undermine intrinsic motivation, whereas those that promote a more internal perceived locus of causality will enhance intrinsic motivation”


• Proposition 2. “External events will affect a person's intrinsic motivation for an optimally challenging activity to the extent that they influence the person's perceived competence ...”

• “Events that promote greater perceived competence will enhance intrinsic motivation, whereas those that diminish perceived competence will decrease intrinsic motivation”


• Proposition 3. “Events relevant to the initiation and regulation of behaviour have three potential aspects, each with a functional significance. The informational aspect facilitates an internal perceived locus of causality and perceived competence, thus enhancing intrinsic motivation …”


• Proposition 3 (cont 1). “The controlling aspect facilitates an external perceived locus of causality, thus undermining intrinsic motivation and promoting extrinsic compliance or defiance”


• Proposition 3 (cont 2). “The amotivating aspect facilitates perceived incompetence, thus undermining intrinsic motivation and promoting amotivation. The relative salience of these three aspects to a person determines the functional significance of the event”

REWARDS

Reward seen to be reason for exercise involvement [‘controlling function’]

Reward provides information about competence in exercise [‘controlling function’]

Perceived success

Perceived lack of success

Perceived success

Perceived lack of success

Intrinsic motivation likely to decline


Intrinsic motivation likely to increase


Possible links between rewards and intrinsic motivation in exercise

Self-Determination Theory

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

AMOTIVATION1. capacity-ability beliefs2. strategy beliefs3. capacity-effort beliefs4. helplessness beliefs

EXTERNAL REGULATION

INTROJECTED REGULATION

IDENTIFIED REGULATION

INTEGRATED REGULATION

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION1. to know2. to accomplish 3. to experience stimulation

- SELF-DETERMINATION +

A continuum of self-determination and different types of motivation

SDT: Types of motivation

• AMOTIVATION:

• the relative absence of motivation

• a lack of contingency between actions and outcomes is perceived

• reasons for continuing involvement cannot be found


• EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION (4 main types of ‘behavioural regulation’):

• External

• Introjected

• Identified

• Integrated


• External regulation: behaviour is controlled by rewards, threats and possible coercion

• Introjected regulation: the individual is acting out of avoidance of negative feelings, such as guilt

• Identified regulation: action motivated by an appreciation of valued outcomes of participation

• Integrated regulation: the behaviour is performed to satisfy important personal goals that are symbolic of the person’s self identity (i.e., they are ‘integrated’ with the self)


• The four main types of extrinsic motivation: • external, introjected, identified, and integrated regulation• External regulation: behaviour is controlled by rewards, threats and

possible coercion• Introjected regulation: the individual is acting out of avoidance of

negative feelings, such as guilt, or to seek approval from others• Identified regulation: action motivated by an appreciation of valued

outcomes of participation• Integrated regulation: the most self-determined extrinsic form of

behavioural regulation and the behaviour is performed to satisfy important personal goals

• intrinsic motivation: participation for fun and for the activity itself.

AMOTIVATION

INTROJECTED

IDENTIFIED

EXTRINSIC

INTRINSIC

.53

.45

.55

.75

.14

-.15

-.27.10

.39

Correlations between SDT constructs (from a meta-analysis by Chatzisarantis et al., 2003)

Correlations between SDT constructs and intentions and competence

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Amot Extr Intro Iden Intr

IntentionsCompetence

(from a meta-analysis by Chatzisarantis et al., 2003)

Key: Amot: amotivationExtr: Extrinsic/externalIntro: introjectedIden: identifiedIntr: Intrinsic

GlobalFactors

SituationalFactors

ContextualFactors

Needs

Needs

Needs

GlobalMotivation

ContextualMotivation

SituationalMotivation

Outcomes

Outcomes

Outcomes

Hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997)

LOCUS OF CONTROL

Locus of Control (LOC)

• Rotter (1966) formalised the construct of LOC as a generalised belief of internal versus external control of reinforcements


• Rotter (1966) defined 'internals' as follows:

• "If the person perceives that the event (the reinforcement) is contingent upon his/her own behaviour or his/her own relatively permanent characteristics, we have termed this a belief in internal control".


• Rotter (1966) defined 'externals' as follows:• "When a reinforcement is perceived ... as

following some action of his/her own but not being entirely contingent upon his/her action, then ... it is typically perceived as the result of luck, chance, fate, as under the control of powerful others, or as unpredictable ... When the event is interpreted in this way, ... we have labelled this a belief in external control".

Locus of Control and physical activity

• THE CONSTRUCT OF LOCUS OF CONTROL REMAINS POPULAR BUT …

• HAS NOT BEEN A STRONG PREDICTOR OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPATION

Attributions

• Attributions are the perceived causes and reasons people give for an outcome or behaviour

• The focus is often on the perceived causality of behaviour, thus the term 'causal attributions' is sometimes used

Attribution dimensions

• locus of causality dimension: classifies attributions as they relate to the individual (internal) or reside outside of the individual (external)

• stability dimension: refers to the classification of attributions in relation to their temporal stability, with some attributions being transient (unstable) and others relatively permanent (stable) over time

• controllability dimension: classifies attributions in terms of whether they are controllable or uncontrollable

6 applications of attributional principles to health education (1) (Lewis & Daltroy, 1990)

• development of therapeutic relationships: eliciting attributions can assist in the development of empathy between patient and carer, or between other relationships in health settings

• creation of correct attributions: assistance in developing informed judgements about one’s health status may be important for psychosocial adjustment, particularly where illness is concerned

• alteration of incorrect attributions: attributional change may be functional, either through misattribution alteration or through changes made in the dimensional structure of the attributions formed

6 applications of attributional principles to health education (2) (Lewis & Daltroy, 1990)

• alteration of the focus of the attribution: the attributional focus may need to be shifted away from one area (e.g. uncontrollable illness) to another. This may act as a coping mechanism or assist in personal adjustment

• attribution of characteristics of the individual: health professionals can use attributional statements in reference to the individual client or patient. These might motivate behaviours if the statements give certain cues to the individual, such as how good a person they are or how capable they are

• maintenance of perceived personal effectiveness: making the right attributions will have an influence on perceived competence and efficacy for the maintenance of their health behaviours.

Application of attributions to exercise

• Research in exercise has shown that:

• attributing exercise progress to internal, stable and personally controllable factors is associated with feelings of positive emotion and self-efficacy

McAuley (1991)

Perceptions of the incremental nature of ability

Entity and Incremental Beliefs

• People subscribe to differing views of ability

• Those who view that a particular attribute is fixed and relatively stable hold an ‘entity’ view or ‘entity theory’

• Those seeing the attribute as changeable and open to development hold an ‘incremental’ view or theory.

Entity and Incremental Beliefs

• Research in physical activity with children has shown:

• Incremental beliefs negatively predicts amotivation towards physical education and sport

• Entity beliefs positively predicts amotivation towards physical education and sport

• enjoyment of physical activity is positively associated with incremental beliefs

Chapter 4: Conclusions

• Cognitive Evaluation Theory remains a viable theory for the study of motivational processes in physical activity

• Self-Determination Theory is an important perspective for the study of motivation in physical activity and is likely to increase our understanding of motivation in the future, in particular the different types of extrinsic motivation that might exist in physical activity

• current research findings are not supportive of locus of control being a strong determinant of physical activity and exercise.

• the tenets of attribution theory are applicable to health and exercise and could provide an important perspective for understanding cognitive, affective and behavioural aspects of most health domains

• beliefs concerning the stability of ‘athletic ability’ may be important motivational factors in physical activity

Chapter 4: MOTIVATION THROUGH FEELINGS OF CONTROL Everything’s under control!

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