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Chapter 4 M. Keshtgary Spring 91 Type of Workloads

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Types of Workloads 2 Test workload denotes any workload used in performance study Real workload one observed on a system while being used Cannot be repeated (easily) May not even exist (proposed system) is generally not suitable for use as a test workload Synthetic workload similar characteristics to real workload Can be applied in a repeated manner Relatively easy to port; Relatively easy to modify without affecting operation No large real-world data files; No sensitive data May have built-in measurement capabilities Benchmark == Workload Benchmarking is process of comparing 2+ systems with workloads

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Test Workloads for Computer Systems 3 Addition instructions Instruction mixes Kernels Synthetic programs Application benchmarks

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Addition Instructions 4 Early computers had CPU as most expensive component System performance == Processor Performance CPUs supported few operations; the most frequent one was addition Computer with faster addition instruction performed better Run many addition operations as test workload Problem More operations, not only addition Some more complicated than others

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Instruction Mixes 5 Number and complexity of instructions increased Additions were no longer sufficient Could measure instructions individually, but they are used in different amounts => Measure relative frequencies of various instructions on real systems Use as weighting factors to get average instruction time Instruction mix specification of various instructions coupled with their usage frequency Use average instruction time to compare different processors Often use inverse of average instruction time MIPS Million Instructions Per Second FLOPS Millions of Floating-Point Operations Per Second Gibson mix: Developed by Jack C. Gibson in 1959 for IBM 704 systems

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Example: Gibson Instruction Mix 6 1.Load and Store13.2 2.Fixed-Point Add/Sub6.1 3.Compares3.8 4.Branches16.6 5.Float Add/Sub6.9 6.Float Multiply3.8 7.Float Divide1.5 8.Fixed-Point Multiply0.6 9.Fixed-Point Divide0.2 10.Shifting4.4 11.Logical And/Or1.6 12.Instructions not using regs5.3 13.Indexing18.0 Total100 1959, IBM 650 IBM 704

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Problems with Instruction Mixes 7 In modern systems, instruction time variable depending upon Addressing modes, cache hit rates, pipelining Interference with other devices during processor-memory access Distribution of zeros in multiplier Times a conditional branch is taken Only represents speed of processor Bottleneck may be in other parts of system

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Kernels 8 Pipelining, caching, address translation, made computer instruction times highly variable Therefore we cannot use individual instructions in isolation Instead, it became more appropriate to consider a set of instructions, which constitutes a higher level function, a service provided by the processors Since most of the initial kernels did not make use of the input/output (I/O) devices and concentrated solely on the processor performance, this class of kernels could be called the processing kernel Kernel = the most frequent function Commonly used kernels: Tree Searching, Matrix Inversion, and Sorting Disadvantages Do not make use of I/O devices

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Synthetic Programs 9 Proliferation in computer systems, OS emerged, changes in applications No more processing-only apps, I/O became important too Use simple exerciser loops Make a number of service calls or I/O requests Compute average CPU time and elapsed time for each service call Easy to port, distribute (Fortran, Pascal) First exerciser loop by Buchholz (1969) Called it synthetic program May have built-in measurement capabilities

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Synthetic Programs 10 Advantages Quickly developed and given to different vendors No real data files Easily modified and ported to different systems Have built-in measurement capabilities Measurement process is automated Repeated easily on successive versions of the operating systems Disadvantages Too small Do not make representative memory or disk references Mechanisms for page faults and disk cache may not be adequately exercised CPU-I/O overlap may not be representative Not suitable for multi-user environments because loops may create synchronizations, which may result in better or worse performance

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Application Workloads 11 For special-purpose systems, may be able to run representative applications as measure of performance E.g.: airline reservation E.g.: banking Make use of entire system (I/O, etc) Issues may be Input parameters Multiuser Only applicable when specific applications are targeted For a particular industry: Debit-Credit for Banks

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Benchmarks 12 Benchmark = workload Kernels, synthetic programs, application-level workloads are all called benchmarks Instruction mixes are not called benchrmarks Some authors try to restrict the term benchmark only to a set of programs taken from real workloads Benchmarking is the process of performance comparison of two or more systems by measurements Workloads used in measurements are called benchmarks

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13 SPEC Systems Performance Evaluation Cooperative (SPEC) (http://www.spec.org) Non-profit, founded in 1988, by leading HW and SW vendors Aim: ensure that the marketplace has a fair and useful set of metrics to differentiate candidate systems Product: fair, impartial and meaningful benchmarks for computers Initially, focus on CPUs: SPEC89, SPEC92, SPEC95, SPEC CPU 2000, SPEC CPU 2006 Now, many suites are available Results are published on the SPEC web site

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14 SPEC (contd) Benchmarks aim to test "real-life" situations E.g., SPECweb2005 tests web server performance by performing various types of parallel HTTP requests E.g., SPEC CPU tests CPU performance by measuring the run time of several programs such as the compiler gcc