Chapter 4: Learner Differences & Learning NeedsEMILY MANGAN AND CELINE THOMAS

Chapter 4 is divided into five sections: Intelligence, Learning & Thinking Styles, Individual Differences & the Law, Students with Learning Challenges, and Students who are Gifted & Talented

Intelligence

Intelligence is difficult to define, and the concept in education is often misunderstood. Labels are given to students such as “disabled” or “gifted”.

Labels can both stigmatize and help students—being identified as “special needs” can protect the student and help them get the assistance they deserve.

A disability is the inability to do something specific, and a handicap is a disadvantage in a particular situation, sometimes caused by a disability.

Intelligence

When dealing with disabilities it is important to remember:

Do not feel pity for people with disabilities, and speak to them, not about them

Use “person-first” language

Avoid using bias when identifying disability based on a student’s race, culture, or socioeconomic background (minorities are overrepresented)

Intelligence is more than one ability (or disability)

Intelligence

Intelligence is based off of the capacity to learn, the total knowledge a person has acquired, and the ability to adapt to new situations.

“The ability to reason deductively or inductively, think abstractly, use analogies, synthesize information, and apply it to new domains” (page 119)

Psychologists agree there is a general intelligence, a general factor in cognitive ability that is related to performance on all mental tests.

Intelligence

Fluid intelligence is the mental efficiency and reasoning ability grounded in brain development.

Crystallized intelligence is the ability to apply the problem-solving methods appropriate in your cultural context.

Fluid intelligence decreases throughout a life-span, while crystallized increases.

Intelligence can be thought of as a hierarchy of abilities, with general ability at the top and more specific abilities (learning and memory, language, processing speed, etc) lower down.

Intelligence

Multiple Intelligences— a theory by Howard Gardner that there are 8 separate intelligences: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.

Gardner believes an intelligence is a “biopsychological potential to process information in certain ways in order to solve problems or create products…” (page 120)

The Multiple Intelligences theory is not widely encouraged or accepted, although educators have embraced it. Experts conclude that the intelligences are interrelated rather than separate, and that Gardner’s intelligences are really personality traits or talents/preferences.

Intelligence

IN SCHOOLS: teachers should differentiate their instruction to connect with each student, but this does not necessarily mean to teach each lesson in different ways.

Concepts should be taught in several appropriate ways. Intelligences are not the same as learning styles.

Intelligence

So far we’ve summarized how humans differ in the content of intelligence (abilities). Now we look at the differences in information processing—how humans use information to solve problems and behave intelligently.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of successful intelligence is a 3-part cognitive process approach to understanding intelligence.

3 kinds of successful intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical

The process serves three functions:

Higher order planning, strategy selection, and monitoring (thinking processes)

Implementing selected strategies (coping with new experiences)

Gaining new knowledge (adapting to context)

Intelligence

IQ testing was originally created by Alfred Binet in 1904 to help identify students with need for special instruction early in their schooling. Binet’s test was brought to the US and revised at Stanford to create the formula: IQ=mental age/ chronological age x 100.

IQ tests are designed to create statistical characteristics—to determine what the averages are.

“Intelligence is a current state of affairs, affected by past experiences and open to future changes” (page 128)

Scoring higher on IQ tests is related to school achievement for children in all ethnic groups, but they only measure analytic IQ, not practical or creative.

Achievement can be more accurately predicted when accounting for their own learning and motivation, as well as practical and creative intelligences.

Nature vs. Nurture– is intelligence a potential limited by genetics or influenced by experience and education? Answer—BOTH heredity and environment impact intelligence test scores.

Learning & Thinking Styles

Learning styles are defined as the way a person approaches learning and studying.

Some experts believe “learning preferences” may be more accurate. When identifying learning styles, researchers found people identify preferences rather than superior SKILLS in auditory, visual, or kinesthetic modalities.

Learning styles are often criticized for their importance—matching teaching to learning style does not improve learning.

Presenting information in multiple modalities is useful—accommodate student differences and differentiate instruction.

Learning & Thinking Styles

One difference that does hold validity is the distinction between visual and verbal learners. A focus is placed on the positives for visual learners on learning from computer-based multimedia.

3 facets in determining visual or verbal learning style:

Cognitive style

Cognitive spatial ability

Learning preference

Individual Differences & The Law

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) requires states to provide a free, appropriate public education for all students with disabilities in need of special education. There are no exceptions (zero reject), and the expenses are considered a public responsibility.

In IDEA, disability is specific to 13 categories: specific learning disabilities, speech/language impairments, other health impairments, intellectual disability, emotional disturbances, autism spectrum disorders, multiple disabilities, developmental delay, hearing impairments, orthopedic impairments, visual impairments, traumatic brain injury, Deaf-blind.

Individual Differences & The Law

3 major points of IDEA important to education

Concept of least-restrictive placement: educating each child in a setting closest to general education; inclusion- restructuring educational settings to promote belonging and integration.

Individualized Education Program (IEP): an agreement between parents and school about the services that will be provided to the student.

Protection of Rights: procedures and polices that protect rights of both parents and the student (i.e., seeing all records, independent evaluations, nondiscriminatory testing)

Individual Differences & The Law

Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act prevents discrimination against people with disabilities in any federal-funded program (public schools).

Covers a more broad range of disabilities than IDEA.

Accommodations must be made for a student that has conditions that substantially limits participation in schools. OFTEN JUST EXAMPLES OF GOOD TEACHING!!

Examples of accommodations:

Seat the student nearest instructor

Fold assignments in half so student is less overwhelmed by amount of work

Allow use of calculate or tape recorder

Provide books on tape

Mark right answers instead of wrong

Students with Learning Challenges

Learning challenges can manifest in a variety of different ways. Learning problems can be attributed to differences in the brain. A lot of research focuses on working memory capacity, which is a good predictor of cognitive skills. Our book addresses the following learning challenges in greater detail:

Learning Disabilities

Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders

Communication Disorders

Emotional Disorders

Intellectual Disabilities

Health and Sensory Impairments

Autism Spectrum Disorders/Asperger Syndrome

Students with Learning Challenges:Learning Disabilities

Learning disability: a wide range of problems; a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language that may manifest itself in imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculation. (page 136-137)

Students with learning disabilities are NOT ALL ALIKE. Common characteristics are:

Difficulty reading (phonemic awareness)

Problems organizing and interpreting visual or auditory information

Problems paying attention/seeming lack of motivation

Difficulty in mathematics (computation and problem solving)

Students with Learning Challenges:Learning Disabilities

Students with learning disabilities can develop learned helplessness, where they come to believe they cannot control or improve their own learning. In treating learning disabilities, early diagnosis is key. Two general approaches to teaching are highly effective when used together:

Direct Instruction: clear explanations, demonstrations of new material, teaching in small steps, lots of practice, immediate feedback, and teacher support.

Strategy Instruction: specific rules for focusing attention and accomplishing tasks.

Students with Learning Challenges:Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a pervasive pattern of inattention, impulsivity, and/or hyperactivity that is more frequent and severe than is typically observed in individuals at a comparable level of development (page 140). Indicators are:

Inattention: doesn’t pay close attention to class activity, details of work, teacher directions. Has trouble organizing belongings and work. Easily distracted.

Hyperactivity: fidgets, squirms, can’t stay in seat, talks excessively.

Impulsivity: blurts out answers, has trouble waiting for turn, interrupts.

Students with Learning Challenges:Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders

In treating ADHD, there is a lot of controversy surrounding the use of medication. Stimulant drugs (Ritalin, Adderall), and other drugs (Strattera, Concerta) are found to have helpful effects for many children with ADHD in social behaviors and educational interventions.

Regardless of medicinal treatment, behavioral treatments should also be used. They involve the application of methods like contingency management, time-out, self-regulation, and modeling.

MULTI-MODEL APPROACHES TO INTERVENTION ARE MOST EFFECTIVE!

Students with Learning Challenges:Communication Disorders

Second largest group served by special education. May have speech disorders, language disorders, or both. Can arise from many souces.

Speech Disorders: The inability to produce sounds effectively for speaking. Articulation problems (lisps) and fluency disorders (stuttering) are most common. Voicing problems is when a child speaks with inappropriate pitch, quality, or loudness.

Language Disorders: Deficient or inability to understand or express language. Students who seldom speak, use few words or short sentences, or rely on gestures may have a language disorder.

Students with Learning Challenges:Emotional/Behavioral Disorders

Behavioral Disorders: behaviors that deviate so much from the norm that they interfere with the child’s own growth and development and/or the lives of others. Emotional disturbances involve inappropriate behavior, unhappiness or depression, fears and anxieties, and relationship issues. ADA refers to behavioral difficulties as mental disorders.

You may observe students who are: aggressive, anxious, withdrawn, or depressed. Have difficulty following rules, paying attention, or interacting with others.

Important to be aware of the risk of suicide and drug abuse in disturbed students.

Students with Learning Challenges:Intellectual Disabilities

Intellectual disability is a more current name for mental retardation. It is characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. (evident before age 18)

Usually measured by IQ tests; score below 70 is an indicator

Must also be problems with adaptive behavior, day-to-day independent living, and social functioning.

Needed support varies as does severity of disability.

Students with Learning Challenges:Health and Sensory Impairments

Many impairments exist that require special attention, accommodation, or instruction. Our book covers a range of health and sensory impairments in depth:

Cerebral palsy and multiple disabilities (page 150)

Epilepsy (page 151)

Asthma, HIV/AIDS, and Diabetes (page 152)

Vision Impairments (page 152)

Deaf (page 153)

Students with Learning Disabilities:Autism Spectrum/Asperger Syndrome

Autism is defined as a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, general evident before age three, that adversely affect the child’s educational performance. The preferred term, autism spectrum disorders, emphasizes the range of disorders, from mild to severe.

Autism spectrum is dramatically increasing in children. CDC report states 1 in 310 girls and 1 in 70 boys are affected.

Children may have difficulties in social relations, avoid eye contact, don’t share feelings of enjoyment or interest with others, have impaired communication, and have few verbal or language skills. May be sensitive to sensory imformation.

Students with Learning Disabilities:Autism Spectrum/Asperger Syndrome

Asperger Syndrome is included on the autism spectrum. Children share many of the autism characteristics, but have greater trouble with social relations. Language is less affected. Many people with Asperger syndrome are above average intelligence or very gifted in one subject.

Theory of Mind describes the understanding that you and other people have minds, thoughts, and emotions—something people with autism spectrum disorders lack.

Interventions must begin early and be intensive in focusing on communication and social relations. Providing smaller classes, ensuring consistency, using visuals and assistive technology are a few strategies.

Students with Learning Challenges

One very serious problem for students with all types of learning challenges is not enough intervention early in education/life. A new option in the 2004 revision of IDEA is Response to Intervention (RTI).

A three-tiered approach to ensure students get research-based instruction early on, and that interventions are attempted and documented for struggling students.

Used to determine who needs more intensive learning support.

Children struggling in regular classroom move “up a tier” and receive extra support and additional small-group instruction.

Students Who Are Gifted and Talented

Gifted students are defined as very bright, creative, and talented students. Those who “give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities” (page 156, NCLB).

Being gifted comes from equal parts nature and nurture—students show their talents at a very young age, but researchers find that deep and prolonged practice (and support from teachers and parents) is necessary to achieve the most.

Gifted students may struggle socially to fit in with their peers, or be bored in class. Often they skip grades or “accelerate” through schooling. Gifted students should be taught with other gifted students.

Summary Conclusion

To conclude Chapter 4, I will highlight that as teachers, we must be prepared to know how to identify and best instruct students with unique and different needs and abilities. Be aware that every child has learning needs, and differentiate your instruction to best fit. Work with parents and special education teachers, and most importantly listen to your students. Most importantly remember that intelligence does not always manifest in the same way, and each child is intelligent and capable of learning in his/her own way.

Additional Study Tools

Click link to access a quizlet of key terms and theories/theorists to help further your understanding of Chapter 4.

http://quizlet.com/_ky0lb