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CHAPTER 4

HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA

4.1 EVOLUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA

4.1.1 Higher Education Governance in the British Colonial Period

India’s contemporary university system started in 1857 with the

establishment of three public universities in the ‘presidency headquarter’

cities of Chennai, Kolkata and Mumbai. Subsequently, several state-owned

universities started operations under the guidance of provincial governments.

The governance system introduced by the colonial government replicated the

University of London ‘federal university’ system, founded in 1836 to regulate

the quality of existing colleges in which the university is an affiliating body

and reports to its local government. Similarly, in India, the role of the

university was to support the educational goals of its constituent colleges by

designing curricula, holding examinations and awarding degrees. The role of

the colleges was largely to prepare Indians to work in the British colonial

bureaucracy.

The affiliated privately owned colleges primarily taught subjects in

the arts and sciences, as well as the English language, to students who had

completed their secondary education in the vernacular. Engineering colleges

were later affiliated as well and started awarding degrees from 1864.

Engineering education in India started during the British era and focused

mainly on civil engineering. A brief history of earliest engineering colleges in

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India are; The Engineering College at Roorkee (1847), Poona Civil

Engineering College at Pune (1854), Bengal Engineering College at Shibpur

(1856), Banaras Hindu University (1916), Harcourt Butler Technological

Institute, Kanpur (1920) were some of the earliest engineering colleges

established that continue till the present day. Their graduates usually sought

employment in the state’s railroads and other civic departments.

In 1921, the government established the Central Advisory Board of

Education (CABE) to bring consensus on policy matters among provincial

governments. With some interruptions, CABE continues to be the primary

policy making body for education to the present time. Its first report, in 1937,

recommended the establishment of post-secondary technical institutions,

termed polytechnics. In 1945, a committee formed by CABE, under N. R.

Sarkar (popularly known as the “Sarkar Committee”), recommended the

establishment of one higher technical institution in each zone of the country

— north, south, east and west. The All India Council of Technical Education

was formed in 1946, to supervise tertiary-level technical education.

In summary, the colonial government created the federal university

system, in which the lead institution—the university—was owned and

operated by the state. The provincial administrations played the primary role

in governing universities in their provinces. The focus of governance was on

regulating quality standards. The constituent colleges were largely privately

owned and lightly regulated regarding costs, access and equity.

4.1.2 Higher Education Governance in the Nehruvian Period

(1947-1964)

The 1947 draft constitution of independent India recommended the

transfer of all responsibility for education to the provincial governments.

Since the provincial governments already managed education, this merely

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legally ratified an existing situation. However, it significantly affected the

prioritization of objectives: the post-independence provincial governments

were interested in improving access as a first priority, even if it meant

sacrificing quality. To ensure this goal, they increased the level of political

control over the universities by provincial-level governments.

As per the recommendation of the Sarkar Committee (1945) higher

technical institutes were formed based on the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology in the four regions of India. This resulted in the setting up of the

five Indian Institutes of Technology at Kharagpur (1950), Bombay (1958),

Kanpur (1959), Madras (1960) and Delhi (1961) (Delhi was added on to the

original four). The All India Council for Technical Education was set up in

1945, to oversee all technical education (diploma, degree and post-graduate)

in the country.

In 1956, Parliament established the University Grants Commission

as a national regulator of standards and a provider of finance. The change was

led by India’s first post-independence Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru.

Nehru’s strategy of state-led industrialization required the universities to

produce the technicians to work in large state-owned enterprises. Nehru

questioned whether higher education’s provincial governance structure would

produce such technicians. Hence, his government established well resourced,

nationally regulated, unitary institutions with a focus on specific technologies

and with access to collaborations with the best foreign universities; and

jointly with provincial governments, established regional professional unitary

institutions. The establishment of the IITs, NITs and unitary agricultural

universities are witness to this.

In contrast to colonial times, the provincial university actively

promoted the formation of new state-owned colleges. This was in response to

the state’s new (post independence) objective of expanding admissions, at the

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expense of other objectives, such as quality, if necessary. This changed the

ownership and governance of colleges from a largely privately owned and

managed system to a largely public system during Nehru’s tenure. The new

colleges, like those from colonial times, were located largely in urban areas

and offered a general education to the urban elite. The objective of the quality

of the provincial universities suffered due to the higher priority given to

access. The administration of the universities and colleges became more

politicized during the Nehruvian period as compared to colonial times.

4.1.3 Higher Education Governance in the Indira Gandhi Period

(1966-1984)

The period after Nehru’s rule ended in 1964, and up to 1984,

coincides largely with the Prime Minister ship of Indira Gandhi. Mrs. Gandhi

centralized governance generally, thus challenging the federal nature of

India’s democracy. Unlike Nehru, her focus was on rural and poverty issues.

Accordingly, national education policy shifted from addressing the needs of

large-scale industrialization to creating skills for rural occupations and small-

scale industries. The Education Commission report of 1966 and the

subsequent National Policy on Education, of 1968 (NPE-68), reflected these

priorities, with a new stress on multilingual instruction, agricultural education

and adult education, while noting the continuing importance of scientific and

technical education. The national government also sought to control the rush

of the provincial universities into expansion of general education for the elite.

Further, a key policy change, the Constitutional Amendment of

1976, included education in the Concurrent List (i.e., it became a joint

responsibility of the national and provincial governments), whereas earlier it

was the sole responsibility of the provinces (states). Under the amendment,

the central government’s role was to maintain quality and standards, while the

states would remain responsible for the provision of education. Thus, the

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State, during Mrs. Gandhi’s tenure, made strong efforts to reprioritize higher

education towards greater equity. Corresponding changes in governance were

sought – higher national control over university priorities and higher

academic control over university administration. Some new programs in

agriculture and vocational education were introduced in consequence, but

these were not substantial.

4.1.4 Higher Education Governance in the Reform Period

(1984-2010)

The period that began in 1984, with the end of Mrs. Gandhi’s rule,

is widely identified as the start of economic reforms and liberalization, and

the advent of a new political era consisting of coalition governments that

included provincial parties nationally, and greater devolution of political

power to the provinces. As power devolved to the provinces, the provincial

universities reverted to their earlier strategies of promoting access by

expanding supply.

Due to the rising political power of “disadvantaged groups,” greater

attention was paid to more equitable access through reservations of seats and

lower pricing of reserved seats. Meanwhile, education policy at the national

level was increasingly driven by the need to counterbalance the ill-effects of

politicization at the provincial universities by instituting national regulations

to improve quality, control costs, and increase the supply of higher education

places.

A key component of national regulation was greater autonomy for

colleges. In 1986, the government published the second national policy on

education (NPE-1986); it was updated in 1992. The policy promoted,

officially for the first time, the idea of autonomous colleges. It noted concerns

on the declining quality of higher education, attributing it to a proliferation of

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universities. Since the universities were under provincial control, this also

implicitly referred to the politicization of university governance and a

consequent weakening of standards of admission and teaching. NPE- 86

proposed limiting the growth of universities and shifting more responsibility

for standards to colleges through greater autonomy.

Following NPE-1986’s call for greater autonomy for colleges, UGC

published a plan to enable autonomous colleges. Under this plan, autonomous

colleges were to be granted their status upon application to UGC. Once

approved by UGC and the state government, approved colleges were to be

granted the following autonomies

They could develop and propose new courses of study with

the University for Approval.

They could prescribe rules for admission in consonance with

the reservation policy of the state government.

They were fully responsible for the conduct of all

examinations. The final degree would be awarded by the

umbrella university, but would include the name of the

college.

The UGC plan was never implemented as official policy.

Undeterred perhaps, in 1990, the UGC published a report on “Alternate

Models of Management” (informally known as the Gnanam Committee

Report, after its chairperson). It discussed the adverse impacts of the deep

politicization of university governance. The report called for greater

autonomy for universities from government and greater involvement of

“teachers, students and society at large” in running universities, including the

positions at the top of the hierarchy.

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The report recommended decentralization within the university

hierarchy, including empowering university deans, shifting responsibility for

course regulation, examinations and degree awards to affiliated colleges, and

recommending that universities concentrate on “postgraduate education and

research programmes.” The report also recommended that UGC’s activities be

shared with State Councils for Higher Education. It suggested that most of the

powers for regulating universities should pass to the State Council, with UGC

playing an advisory role. It asked that the Council’s composition be primarily

academic. It recommended that the power to affiliate or disaffiliate a college

should rest with the university.

The report noted that the university system was excessively

centralized and unable to manage the growth of affiliated colleges. As it

stated, “A number of Universities are groaning under the weight of affiliated

colleges and the burden which it imposes on their meager facilities. On the

other hand, many of the affiliated colleges are experiencing difficulty because

they feel that the links with the University are far too tenuous, and the

University is an obstacle in their progress.”

The report further noted that the existing organizational structure of

universities was a problem. The organization structure typically consisted of

the following elements:

1. An elected Senate, consisting of academics and other

stakeholders (including local bodies, staff, union

representatives, students, alumni, etc.). The Senate is the most

important rule-making body.

2. A Syndicate or Executive Council, consisting of

representation of college principals, teachers, senators,

members of the Academic Council and some government and

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ex-officio nominees. The Syndicate may be elected or

nominated.

3. A non-elected Academic Council consisting of faculty

representatives and university heads of departments.

It found large overlaps in the functioning of these three bodies, with

decisions taken by one body typically requiring approval of the other two.

The Syndicate was supposed to supervise administration while the Academic

Council dealt with academic issues; but, the regulations required that the

Academic Council obtain the Syndicate’s approval. According to the report,

the primary external stakeholders in the colleges were the state and the

university. The university governed academic standards through prescribing

physical and financial standards, teachers’ qualifications, course content and

textbooks, examinations and, in some cases, were on the selection committee

for teachers and principals; the university might also nominate a

representative on the college’s governing body, as might the government. The

state appointed representatives to the managing committees, but with no

obvious role.

In practice, the external stakeholders paid little attention to teaching.

The report noted that quality often suffered due to a large proportion of

temporary teachers, underpaid teachers and overcrowded classrooms. In this

context, the report noted the ‘mushroom growth’ of private engineering

colleges, with ‘poor facilities, poor framework and poor conception.’ The

report recommended that colleges should adopt uniform structures built

around academic affairs, student affairs, business affairs and development.

The Gnanam Committee report made provincial politicians very

uncomfortable, since they ran the universities largely as fiefdoms for their

political benefit. They used their rising political power to, in essence, suppress

the report. In April 1992, the Education Ministry published its review of the

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Gnanam Committee report through CABE. It accepted most of the report, and

rejected some parts.

4.1.5 Summary of major committees and recommendations

Committee Title Year Recommendations Sarkar Committee

Higher Technical Institutions for the Post-war industrial development

1945 Setting up of Indian institutes of technology

Thacker committee

Postgraduate engineering education and research

1959- 1961 Funding for 100 PhDs annually

Nayudamma committee

Postgraduate education in engineering & technology

1979 - 1980 PG minimum qualifications for industry, R&D, etc.

Nayudamma committee

IIT Review 1986 Greater flexibility in academic programme, focus on engineering research, faculty mobility

P. Rama Rao committee

Reshaping postgraduate education in engineering & technology

1995 21 months M.Tech, Increased scholarship amount, assured employment for M.Techs, National Doctoral Programme

R.A.Mashelkar Committee

A strategic road map for academic excellence of future RECs

1998 Conversion of RECs into NITs with the status of a deemed to be university and structural changes in governance

U.R.Rao committee

Revitalizing the technical education

2003 Regional inequity to be removed, Faculty shortage to be addressed, Need for planning and coordination in the working of AICTE

P.Rama Rao committee

IIT Review 2004 Increase UG output of IITs, fund infrastructure increase, add new IITs but maintain quality

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4.2 PUBLIC/PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP

The Indian higher education system has undergone a massive

expansion in post-independent India with a national resolve to establish

several Universities, Technical Institutes, Research Institutions and

Professional / Non Professional Colleges all over the country to generate and

disseminate knowledge coupled with the noble intention of providing easy

access to higher education to the common Indian. The Public initiatives

played a dominant and controlling role in this phase. Most of the Universities

were Public institutions with powers to regulate academic activities on their

campuses as well as in their areas of jurisdiction through the affiliating

system. Even the private institutions enjoyed large-scale financial support in

the form of grants from the public exchequer.

Private funds as well as individuals played key roles in the

foundation of higher education. With the public funding being no more in a

position to take-up the challenging task of expansion and diversification of

the higher education system in the country to meet the continually growing

demands at present, there is little option other than bringing in private

initiatives in a massive way to meet the various challenges. The deregulating

mechanism of controls started with the granting of “Autonomous Status” to

identified Colleges in the 1970s. Some of these Colleges have graduated

further to receive the “Deemed to be University” status in later years. Now,

the country is on the threshold of the establishment of Private Universities in

different States.

4.3 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHERS

Professional development of teachers refers to the generation of all

those updated skills required to execute a task of teachers in academic

teaching-learning situations. It means by which members of the academic

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community at higher education level maintain, improve and broaden their

knowledge and skills and, develop the personal qualities required in their

professional lives. Professional development may also come in the form of

pre-service or in-service professional development programs. These programs

may be formal, or informal, group or individualized. Individuals may pursue

professional development independently, or programs may be offered by

human resource departments. Professional development opportunities can

range from a single workshop to a semester-long academic course. But, the

heart of professional development is the individual's interest in lifelong

learning and increasing their own skills and knowledge.

4.4 ROLE OF INDIAN GOVERNMENT IN HIGHER

EDUCATION SECTOR

Education is a part of concurrent list and the Indian government,

especially the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD),

Department of Higher Education, at Center is responsible for synchronization

and formation of policies that can elevate the standards of higher education or

research, and technical and scientific centers. However, in order to implement

the devised policies, central government has set up certain statutory agencies,

such as Universities Grants Commission (UGC), All India Council for

Technical Education (AICTE), and Distance Education Council (DEC).

As far as the discharge of responsibilities is concerned, UGC is in

charge of looking after the quality of higher education in India through the

process of coordination, maintenance and decision-making. AICTE has

assumed the planning and coordination roles for the technical education

sphere in the country. When it comes to the development and growth of the

Open University and distance mode of learning, DEC takes the charge. The

statutory body DEC scrutinizes the teaching, research and examination system

of these higher education centers.

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Aside from this, there are several other statutory or autonomous

education bodies also which have been vested with significant power and

authority to ensure betterment of the higher education system in India. Some

of these are listed below:

Medical Council of India (MCI)

Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR)

National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)

Dental Council of India (DCI)

Pharmacy Council of India (PCI)

Indian Nursing Council (INC)

Bar Council of India (BCI)

Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH)

Central Council for Indian Medicine (CCIM)

Council of Architecture

Rehabilitation Council

State Councils of Higher Education

This is not all because MHRD also has to take charge in the areas of

data management, capacity building and promotion of the unprivileged

sections including minority group, women, etc. In order to carry out these and

other tasks, the education department has introduced some of the aided

premier organizations / centers, which have eventually become the center of

excellence in their own right. Some of these autonomous institutions through

which the department ensures implementation of its policies include:

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Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs)

Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore

Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

Central Universities, including IGNOU

Indian Institutes of Information Technology (IIITs)

National Institutes of Technology (NITs)

Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISERs)

School of Planning and Architecture

Further, as per the role of state governments in the higher education

sector, the state governments enjoy the power of setting up universities and

colleges in their respective states. They have to build plan and non-plan grants

to ensure the development and maintenance of the institutions.

Undoubtedly, the Central Government is entrusted with the

exclusive legislative rights in the field of higher education. But, when it

comes to effective implementation of policies and the discharge of

responsibilities, both central and state governments have to cooperate and

coordinate with each other; for this purpose, the Central Advisory Board of

Education (CABE) has been formed.

4.5 THE PRESENT FORMAT OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN

INDIA

At present, India possesses a highly developed higher education

system which offers the facility of education and training in almost all aspects

of human’s creative and intellectual endeavors such as arts and humanities,

natural, mathematical and social sciences, engineering, medicine, dentistry,

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agriculture, education, law, commerce and management, music and

performing arts, national and foreign languages, culture, communications etc.

4.5.1 Academic Qualification Framework

There are three principle levels of qualifications within the higher

education system in the country which are as under:

4.5.1.1 Bachelor/ Undergraduate level

The bachelor's degree is offered after 12 years of school education.

Generally it is offered in two streams: liberal and professional field of studies.

The liberal studies are generally three years programme offered in arts,

commerce and sciences. Some institutions offer bachelor courses with

honours in liberal studies which are not necessarily longer in duration but

indicate greater depth of study.

Bachelor degree in professional studies is generally a four years

programme offered in agriculture, dentistry, engineering, medicine,

pharmacy, technology, and veterinary. The bachelors in architecture and

medicine take five and five and a half years respectively. There are other

bachelor programmes which are offered only after completion of the first

bachelor degree. These include one year bachelors in education, journalism

and library and information science.

Similarly a Bachelor's degree in law can be pursued only after

completion of first bachelor degree but it is of three year bachelor

programme. The bachelor degree in law is also offered as an integrated degree

lasting five years.

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4.5.1.2 Master's / Post-graduate level

The master's degree is normally of two-year duration in both the

liberal and professional fields of study. It could be coursework based with or

without thesis or research. Now a days to match the skill requirement, fast

track programmes in professional streams such as Executive MBA is also

available to those having 3 to 5 years of experience at managerial level. Some

Master's degree such as in Library and Information Science lasts for one year

while in Computer Science lasts for three years.

4.5.1.3 Pre-Doctoral / Doctoral level

A pre-doctoral programme - Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) is taken

after completion of the Master's Degree. This can either be completely

research based or can include course work as well which is generally of two

years duration. Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) is pursued after masters or pre-

doctoral programme and generally takes three to five years to be awarded.

Students are expected to write a substantial thesis based on original research

with or without course work.

4.5.1.4 Diploma

Diploma Courses are also available at the undergraduate and

postgraduate level. At the undergraduate level, it varies between one to three

years in length while postgraduate diplomas are normally awarded after one

year’s study.

4.5.1.5 Distance Learning Programmes

At all the levels, programmes in both liberal and professional fields

are offered through distance learning mode which normally takes longer

duration than their equivalent regular programme.

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4.5.2 Institutional framework

The degree / diploma awarding institutions consist of the following:

4.5.2.1 Central Universities

A Central University in India is established by the Government of

India, by Act of Parliament.

4.5.2.2 State Universities

A State University in India is established by the State Government,

by the State Legislature.

4.5.2.3 Deemed Universities

Institutions which have been accorded the status of a university with

the authority to award their own degrees through central government

notification are called deemed universities.

4.5.2.4 Open University

Open University can be a central or state University imparting

education exclusively through distance mode in any branch or branches of

knowledge.

4.5.2.5 Institutes of National Importance

Some of the higher education institutions are awarded the said status

of Institutes of National Importance by the act of Parliament.

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4.5.2.6 Other Institutions

It Includes the Institutions established by the State Legislative Act

and colleges affiliated to the University, both government-aided and unaided.

The Universities are of various kinds, with a single faculty, or multi-faculties,

teaching or affiliating, or teaching cum affiliating, single campus or multiple

campuses. Most of the Universities are affiliating universities, which

prescribe to the affiliated colleges the course of study, hold examinations and

award degrees. Most of the universities along with their affiliated colleges

have grown rapidly to the extent of becoming unmanageable. Therefore, as

per National Policy on Education, 1986, a scheme of autonomous colleges

was promoted. In the autonomous colleges, the name of the college is to be

included while the degree is conferred. The colleges develop and propose new

courses of study with the University for Approval. They are also fully

responsible for the conduct of examination.

4.5.3 Regulatory Framework

The institutions imparting higher education at different levels are

regulated by the following bodies:

University Grants Commission (UGC) set up under UGC Act

1956 is responsible for coordination, determination, and maintenance of

standards and release of grants to universities and research organizations.

All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) has been

established under the AICTE Act, 1987. The council is authorized to take all

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steps that are considered appropriate for ensuring coordinated and integrated

development of technical education and for maintenance of standards.

Medical Council of India (MCI) was set up by the Indian Medical

Council Act, 1956, amended in 1993. The council is empowered to prescribe

minimum standards for medical education required for granting recognized

medical qualifications by universities or medical institutions in India. The

Council is also responsible to give its recommendations to the Central

Government for establishing new medical colleges, opening of new or higher

courses of study and increase in admission capacity in any courses of study or

training.

Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) has established

various research centers in order to meet the agricultural research and

education needs of the country. It is actively pursuing human resource

development in the field of agricultural sciences by setting up numerous

agricultural universities spanning the entire country.

National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) is a statutory

body set up under the National Council for Teacher Education Act, 1993 to

facilitate planned and coordinated development of the teacher education

system in the country, and for the regulation and proper maintenance of

norms and standards in the teacher education system. The Council is

empowered to grant recognition of institutions offering courses or training in

teacher education.

Dentists Council of India (DCI) constituted under the Dentists Act,

1948, is a statutory body incorporated under an Act of Parliament to regulate

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the dental education and the profession of dentistry throughout India. The

council is responsible for accrediting recognition to dental degree awarded by

various universities and also for maintaining uniform standards of dental

education in India.

Pharmacy Council of India (PCI) also known as central council

was constituted under Section 3 of the Pharmacy Act, 1948. The PCI controls

pharmacy education and profession in India up to graduate level. The council

prescribes the minimum standard of education for qualification as a

pharmacist.

Indian Nursing Council (INC) is a statutory body constituted

under the Indian Nursing Council Act, 1947. The council is responsible for

the regulation and maintenance of a uniform standard of training for nurses,

midwives, auxiliary nurse-midwives and health visitors.

Bar Council of India (BCI) is empowered to make rules to

discharge its functions under the Advocates Act 1961. The Bar Council of

India rules may prescribe for a class or category of person entitled to be

enrolled as an advocate. The Bar Council of India can also specify the

conditions subject to which an advocate must have the right to practice and

the circumstances under which a person must be deemed to practice as an

advocate in a court.

Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH) was established under the

Homoeopathy Central Council Act, 1973. The council prescribes and

recognizes all homeopathic medicine qualifications. Any university or

medical institutions that desires to grant a medical qualification in

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homeopathy is required to apply to the council. The council is responsible for

the constitution and maintenance of a Central Register of Homoeopathy and

for matters connected therewith. All universities and board of medical

institutions in India are required to furnish all information regarding courses

of study and examination.

Central Council for Indian Medicine (CCIM) is the statutory

body constituted under the Indian Medicine Central Council Act, 1970. This

council prescribes minimum standards of education in Indian Systems of

Medicine viz. Ayurved, Siddha, Unani Tibb. The council is responsible to

maintain a Central Register of Indian Medicine and prescribes standards of

professional conduct, etiquette and code of ethics to be observed by the

practitioners.

Council of Architecture (COA) was constituted under the

provisions of the Architects Act, 1972, enacted by the Parliament of India.

The Act provides for registration of Architects, standards of education,

recognized qualifications and standards of practice to be complied with by the

practicing architects. The Council of Architecture is responsible to regulate

the education and practice of profession throughout India besides maintaining

the register of architects. Any person desirous of carrying on the profession of

"Architect" must register himself with Council of Architecture.

Distance Education Council (DEC) was constituted under statute

28 arising from Section 25 of the Indira Gandhi National Open University

Act, 1985. The Distance Education Council (DEC) is responsible for the

promotion and coordination of the Open University and distance education

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system and for determination of its standards. The Council provides academic

guidelines to promote excellence, encourage the use of innovative

technologies and approaches, enable convergence of all systems and sharing

of resources through collaborative networking for access to sustainable

education, skill up gradation and training to all.

Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) The Parliament enacted

Rehabilitation Council of India Act in 1992. It prescribes that any one

delivering services to people with disability, who does not possess

qualifications recognized by RCI, could be prosecuted. Thus the Council has

the twin responsibility of standardizing and regulating the training of

personnel and professional in the field of Rehabilitation and Special

Education.

National Council for Rural Institutes (NCRI) is an autonomous

society fully funded by the Ministry of Human Resources Development,

Government of India. It was established with a main objective of promoting

Rural Higher Education for advancing rural livelihoods with the instrument of

education based on the values proposed by Gandhiji.

State Councils of Higher Education (SCHE) Following the

National Policy on Education, respective state governments have established

State Councils of Higher Education (SCHE). These councils prepare

coordinated programs of development of higher education in each state. Thus,

they seek to consolidate the efforts and investments of institutions of higher

education in the state.

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4.6 EDUCATIONAL STRUCTURE AND GROWTH OF HIGHER

EDUCATION IN INDIA (STATISTICS)

Figure 4.1 Education Structure in India

The above chart 4.1 presents the contemporary education structure

of India which shows all levels of education starting from pre-primary level to

higher education in all the branches of education.

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Figure 4.2 Growth of Higher education: Universities/Colleges/Students

enrollment/Teaching Staff: 1950-51-2010-11

The above chart 4.2 presents the growth of universities, colleges,

students’ enrolment and teaching staff since 1950-51 to 2010-11.

Figure 4.3 Type-wise distribution of degree awarding Universities

/University level Institutions: December, 2011

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The above chart 4.3 depicts the volume of universities under

different category during the year December 2011.

Figure 4.4 State -wise number of Colleges 2010-11

The above chart 4.4 shows the state-wise number of colleges

functioning in India during the academic year 2010-11.

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Figure 4.5 Growth of Higher education Institutions

The above chart 4.5 presents the growth of number of universities

and colleges since 1950-51 to Dec. 2011.

Figure 4.6 Growth of Teaching Staff in Universalities and Colleges

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The above chart 4.6 depicts the growth of teaching staff in

universities and colleges from the academic year 1950-51 to 2010-11.

Figure 4.7 Faculty wise students enrolment in higher education

2010-11

The above chart 4.7 presents the percentage of students enrolled

under each faculty during the academic year 2010-11.

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Figure 4.8 Faculty wise students enrolment (‘000’): Boys & Girls

2010-11

The above chart 4.8 presents gender wise student enrolment under

each faculty during the academic year 2010-11.

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Figure 4.9 Growth of Higher Education: state wise students’ enrolment

2010-11

The above chart 4.9 depicts the state-wise student enrolment during

the academic year 2010-11.

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Figure 4.10 Expenditure on higher education in India (as % of GDP)

The above chart 4.10 presents the expenditure incurred in higher

education since 2006-07 to 2009-10.

4.7 MEASURES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER

EDUCATION IN INDIA

Higher education in India is considered to be the one among the

largest education systems of the world. And, in order to enhance this system

further, the Indian government has adopted various measures. These measures

are thought of at numerous levels and then, executed. These include:

Forming National Education Policy and supervising its

implementation

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Making development plans for University, Higher Education

and Technical Education

Emphasizing on the education needs of unprivileged groups,

such as SC/ ST / OBC and girls, physically challenged and

minority groups

Providing scholarships to proficient candidates

Focusing on the growth of all Indian languages

Encouraging international relationship in the sphere of

education (such as with UNESCO)

Promoting books and Copyright Act

4.8 RECENT CONTRIBUTION OF THE INDIAN

GOVERNMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR

In the year 2010-2011, Indian government has assigned 2350.00

crores to UGC under plan grants for extending assistance to state based

universities and colleges. Central Universities (CUs) & Deemed Universities

(DU) are granted Rs. 1980 and 60 crores for providing assistance to Central

Universities, Deemed Universities, etc. Like these, other educational

organizations are also granted aids to help the higher education sector flourish

and grow.