Chapter 4 From Birth to Death: Life-Span Development Table of Contents Exit.

Chapter 4

From Birth to Death: Life-Span Development

Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit

Life Events

Developmental Tasks: These must be mastered for optimal development (e.g., learning to read and adjusting to sexual maturity)

Developmental Milestones: Notable events, markers, or turning points in personal development

Psychosocial Dilemma: Conflict between personal impulses and the social world


Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Dilemmas

Stage One: Trust Versus Mistrust (Birth-1): Children are completely dependent on others Trust: Established when babies given adequate warmth,

touching, love, and physical care Mistrust: Caused by inadequate or unpredictable care and by

cold, indifferent, and rejecting parents

Stage Two: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (1-3) Autonomy: Doing things for themselves Overprotective or ridiculing parents may cause children to

doubt abilities and feel shameful about their actions


Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Dilemmas (cont.)

Stage Three: Initiative Versus Guilt (3-5) Initiative: Parents reinforce via giving children

freedom to play, use imagination, and ask questions Guilt: May occur if parents criticize, prevent play, or

discourage a child’s questions

Stage Four: Industry Versus Inferiority (6-12) Industry: Occurs when child is praised for

productive activities Inferiority: Occurs if child’s efforts are regarded as

messy or inadequate



Stage Five (Adolescence): Identity Versus Role Confusion Identity: For adolescents; problems answering,

“Who am I?” Role Confusion: Occurs when adolescents are

unsure of where they are going and who they are

Stage Six (Young adulthood): Intimacy Versus Isolation Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to share

experiences with them Isolation: Feeling alone and uncared for in life



Stage Seven (Middle adulthood): Generativity Versus Stagnation Generativity: Interest in guiding the next generation Stagnation: When one is only concerned with one’s own

needs and comforts

Stage Eight (Late adulthood): Integrity Versus Despair Integrity: Self-respect; developed when people have lived

richly and responsibly Despair: Occurs when previous life events are viewed with

regret; experiences heartache and remorse.


Normal Childhood Problems

Sleep disturbancesSpecific fears of the dark, dogs, school, or a particular room or personMost children will be overly timid at times, allowing bullyingTemporary periods of dissatisfaction, when nothing pleases the childGeneral negativismClinging to a parent(s) or caregiverReversals or regressions to more infantile behavior occur with almost all children (Chess, Thomas, & Birch, 1976)


Rivalry and Rebellion

Sibling Rivalry: Competition among brothers and sisters

Childhood Rebellion: Open defiance of adult authority


Serious Childhood Problems

Toilet Training Problems: Average age for completion is 30 months; some children will take up to six months longerEnuresis: Lack of bladder control;

bedwetting. May be physical problem. Much more common in males

Encopresis: Lack of bowel control; soiling. Not as common as enuresis


Serious Childhood Problems: Feeding Disturbances

Overeating: Eating in excess of daily caloric needs; significant problem because of convenience and fast foods

Anorexia Nervosa: Self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that is assumed by some to have psychological origins

Pica: Eating or chewing inedible objects or substances such as lead, chalk, paint chips, clay and so on. Note: Eating inedible foods on occasion is not uncommon among young toddlers


CNN – Sleep Disorders


Fig. 4.1 Dramatic differences in physical size and maturity are found in adolescents of the same age. The girls pictured are all 13, the boys 16. Maturation that occurs earlier or later than average can affect the “search for identity.” (Reprinted with permission of Nelson Prentiss.)


Speech Disturbances

Delayed Speech: Speech that begins well after the normal age for language development

Stuttering: Chronic hesitation or stumbling in speech. Seems to involve speech timing mechanisms in brain; NOT parent’s fault Four times more common in males May be partially inherited


Learning Disorders

Includes problems with reading, math or writing. Exists when academic achievement is significantly lower than expected for child’s intellectual level and age

Dyslexia: Inability to read with understanding. Classic example is reversing letters Affects about 10-15% of all school-age children


CNN – Dyslexia Study


Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Behavioral problem characterized by short attention span, rapid speech, impulsivity, and rarely finishing work. Much more common among boys than girlsTreatment Methods: Drugs: Ritalin (methylphenidate): Stimulant; seems to

lengthen attention span and reduce impulsiveness Behavior Modification: Application of learning

principles to change or eliminate maladaptive or abnormal behavior

Reward child for being calm and paying attentionTable of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit

CNN – Hyperactive Brains


Conduct Disorder

Affected children are aggressive and harm othersEngage in vandalism, lying, or stealingPersistently violate rulesUsually in trouble at school, at home, and in the communityGenerally have low self-esteemOutlook for successful treatment is poor; parents need to seek professional help for such children


Autism

Severe disorder involving mutism (silence), sensory spin-outs (watching a faucet drip for hours), sensory blocking (not responding to an extremely loud noise), tantrums, and unresponsiveness to others, among other symptoms

Echolalia: When an autistic child parrots back everything said, like an echo

“Rain Man” is a decent example on film


Child Abuse

Physical or emotional harm caused by violence, mistreatment, or neglect

3.5 to 14 percent of all children are physically abused by parents

Abusive parents typically have high level of stress and frustration in their lives

About 1/3 of all parents who were abused as children mistreat their own children

One method to prevent child abuse is to change attitudes; not a parent’s right to hit or slap their child


Adolescence

Culturally defined period between childhood and adulthoodPuberty: Hormonal changes promote rapid physical growth and sexual maturityPuberty tends to increase body awareness

and concerns about physical appearance

Growth Spurt: Accelerated growth rate


Adolescence (cont.)

Social Markers: Visible or tangible signs that indicate a person’s social status or role, e.g., driver’s license or wedding ringImaginary Audiences: People adolescents imagine are watching themPeer Group: People who share similar social status


CNN – Heroin Addiction


Lawrence Kohlberg and Stages of Moral Development

Moral Development: When we acquire values, beliefs, and thinking abilities that guide responsible behavior Three Levels Preconventional: Moral thinking guided by

consequences of actions (punishment, reward, exchange of favors)

Conventional: Reasoning based on a desire to please others or to follow accepted rules and values

Postconventional: Follows self-accepted moral principles

Stage theorist, like Freud and EriksonTable of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit

Developmental Challenges for North American Adults (Gould)

Escape From Dominance (Ages 16-18)

Leaving the Family (Ages 18-22)

Building a Workable Life (Ages 22-28)

Crisis of Questions (Ages 29-34)


Developmental Challenges for North American Adults (Gould) (cont.)

Crisis of Urgency (Ages 35-43)

Attaining Stability (Ages 43-50)

Mellowing (Ages 50 and up)


Middle Age Issues: Mid-Life Crises? Menopause: Menstruation ends and a woman is no longer able to bear children. Estrogen levels also drop, sometimes causing mood or appearance changes. Hot flashes: Sudden uncomfortable sensation of heat; symptom

of menopause in some women Climacteric: When men experience a significant change in vigor

or appearance; may be psychological in origin Andropause: Reduced testosterone levels; can lead to

decreased sex drive, fatigue, and obesity

Empty Nest Syndrome: A woman may become depressed after her last child leaves home


Fig. 4.8 At what point during life are people most productive? On average, when do people make their greatest contributions to fields such as science, literature, philosophy, music, and the visual arts? No matter how achievement is tallied, productivity tends to rise rapidly to a single peak that is followed by a slow decline. The graph you see here is typical of contributions to the field of psychology. Fields such as poetry, pure math, and theoretical physics have earlier peaks, around the early 30s or even the late 20s. Other fields, such as novel writing, history, philosophy, medicine, and scholarship are marked by peaks in the late 40s, 50s, or even 60s. (After Simonton, 1988.)


Gerontology and the Study of Aging

Gerontologists study aging and its effects

Intellectual Abilities: Fluid Abilities: Abilities requiring speed or rapid

learning; based on perceptual and motor abilities; may decrease with age

Crystallized Abilities: Learned (accumulated) knowledge and skills; vocabulary and basic facts


Gerontology and the Study of Aging (cont.)

Disengagement Theory: Assumes that it is normal and desirable for people to withdraw from society as they ageActivity Theory: People who remain active physically, mentally, and socially will adjust better to agingAgeism: Discrimination or prejudice based on age


Fig. 4.6 Longer life expectancy will produce an unprecedented increase in the percentage of the population over age 65. The “boom” is expected to start at the turn of the century and peak by about 2030 to 2050 (Taebuer, 1993).


Fig. 4.7 Physical aging, which is biologically programmed, progresses steadily from early adulthood onward. Regular exercise, good health practices, and a positive attitude can help minimize the impact of physical aging.


Fig. 4.7 Average performance at various ages for verbal, numeric, spatial, and reasoning abilities all fall within the blue area of this graph. Notice that, in general, mental abilities show modest gains from young adulthood to early middle age. After that, they begin a slow decline. Notice, too, that most abilities at age 70 return to about the same levels found at age 25. Only after age 80 do declines become large enough to make a practical difference in mental abilities. One exception is perceptual speed (black line). This fluid ability declines steadily after age 25. (Adapted from Schaie, 1994.)


Four Psychological Characteristics of Healthy, Happy Older People (Vailant, 2002)

Optimism, hope, and interest in the future

Gratitude and forgiveness; an ability to focus on what is good in life

Empathy; an ability to share the feelings of others and see the world through their eyes

Connection with others; an ability to reach out, to give and receive social support


Fig 4.4 Negative emotions are more common before age 50 than after. The frequency of positive feelings tends to increase from midlife on into old age.


CNN – Alzheimer’s Babies


Death and Dying; Elizabeth Kubler-Ross

Ross is a thanatologist: One who studies emotional and behavioral reactions to death and dying

Ross described five basic reactions to death that occur, not necessarily in the following order or experienced by everyone


Five Basic Reactions to Death (Kubler-Ross)

Denial and Isolation: Denying death’s reality and isolating oneself from information confirming that death will occur. “It’s a mistake; the doctors are wrong.”Anger: Asking “why me?” Anger may then be projected onto the livingBargaining: Terminally ill will bargain with God or with themselves. “If I can live longer I’ll be a better person.”Depression: Feelings of futility, exhaustion and deep sadnessAcceptance: If death is not sudden, many will accept death calmly. Person is at peace finally with the concept of death


Bereavement and Grief

Bereavement: Period of adjustment that follows death of loved oneGrief: Intense sorrow and distress following death of loved oneShock: Emotional numbness experienced after death of loved onePangs of Grief: Intense and anguished yearning for one who has diedResolution: Acceptance of loss and need to build a new life


CNN – The Grieving Process


Happiness

Subjective Well-Being: Feelings of well-being occur when people are satisfied with their lives, have frequent positive emotions, and have relatively few negative emotionsHappier people tend to be Married Comfortable with their work Extraverted Religious Generally optimistic and satisfied with their lives


Attitudes Toward Death

Hospice: Medical facility or program that provides supportive care for terminally ill; goal is to improve person’s final days

Living Will: Written statement that a person does not wish to have his/her life artificially prolonged if terminally ill; a “Do Not Resuscitate” order to doctors


Euthanasia

Passive: Death allowed to occur but not actively caused

Active: Steps taken, at patient’s request, to deliberately speed death; usually by injecting drugs that painlessly cause death

Physician-assisted dying: Doctor provides lethal dose of drug that patients take to end life


CNN – Assisted Suicide


Cryonics

Cryonic Suspension: Freezing body (or head) immediately after death Idea: Keep person frozen until medicine

perfects ways to thaw, restore, and revive person


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