Chapter 4: Conditioning Techniques © 2011 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Chapter 4: Conditioning Techniques

© 2011 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Why does an athlete exercise?

Reduce Injury

Prepare the Athlete for Activity

Injury Rehabilitation© 2011 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

ATC Relationship with the Strength and Conditioning

Coaches• Cooperative relationship that serves to

condition athletes in an effort to minimize injury and maximize performance for both injured and non-injured athletes

• Many strength coaches are certified through the National Strength and Conditioning Association


Principles of Conditioning and Training

• Safety

• Warm-up/Cool-down

• Motivation

• Overload and SAID

principle

• Consistency/ routine

• Progression• Intensity • Specificity

• Individuality

• Relaxation/

Minimize Stress


Principles of Conditioning

• Safety: The environment is safe. Educate athletes proper techniques and how they should feel

• Warm-up/ Cooldown: Take time, do not neglect cooldown

• Motivation: Utilizing periodization, varying program and techniques

• Overload: work harder than accustomed to (SAID principle- Specific adaptation to Imposed demands) but not damage the body


• Consistency: regular basis• Progression: Increase intensity

gradually• Intensity: Stress the intensity rather

than the quantity; do not prolong the workout; tired athlete = injury prone

• Specificity: Specific goals relative to the activity


• Individuality: Needs different per athlete, adjust per athlete

• Minimal Stress: Train as close to their limits as possible but realize other outside demands

What are the 10 Principles of Conditioning?

• Safety

• Warm-up/Cool-down

• Motivation

• Overload and SAID principle

• Consistency/ routine

• Progression• Intensity • Specificity

• Individuality

• Relaxation/ Minimize Stress

Warm-up• Precaution against unnecessary

musculoskeletal injury and soreness

• May enhance certain aspects of performance

• Prepares body physiologically for physical work

• Stimulates cardiorespiratory system, enhancing circulation and blood flow to muscles


• Warm up should begin with 2-3 minutes of light jogging to increase core temperatures– Increases in core temperature have

shown to be effective in reducing injury

– Breaking a light sweat is an indication of this temperature increase


• Dynamic Stretching: Use of continuous motion to prepare body for activity

• Hopping, skipping, jogging, bounding, foot work

– Enhances coordination and motor ability, stimulates the nervous system

– Prepares muscles and joints in a more activity specific manner

– Requires focus and concentration– Should include activities for all of the major muscle groups– May last from 5-20 minutes– Activity should begin immediately following warm-up


Cool-down

• Essential component of workout

• Bring body back to resting state

• 5-10 minutes in duration

• Often ignored

• Decreased muscle soreness following training if time used to stretch after workout


Scenario- Warm-up


Cardiorespiratory Endurance• Perform whole body activities for extended

period of time; provides a means by which oxygen is supplied to the body

• System’s four components– Heart, Lungs, Blood vessels and Blood

• Improvements in endurance are the results of improvements in these 4 components


• Aerobic capacity = VO2max (greatest range in which O2 is taken and used)

• Increases in intensity require higher levels of oxygen consumption; More active = higher capacity

• Inherit certain range of maximum aerobic capacity (can train to get to max)

• Average value = 45-60 ml O2/min/kg


Figure 4-1: The greater the percentage of maximum aerobic capacity requires, the less time the activity can be performed


Find Your VO2 Max Lab

Effects on the Heart• Main pumping mechanism• Increase exercise = increased oxygen

requirement=increase heart pumping• Heart must gradually adapt to imposed demands

but will reach steady state after 2-3 minutes of training

• Heart able to adapt through increases in heart rate and stroke volume (volume of blood being pumped out) which will enhance overall cardiac output


Figure 4-2: 2-3 Minutes are required for heart rate to plateau at a given workload


• Training effect results with regard to cardiac output: stroke volume increases while heart rate is reduced at a given exercise load

• Cardiac functioning becomes more efficient (hypertrophy of heart occurs), you have less beats per minute

Cardiac Output = Increased Stroke Volume x Decreased Heart Rate


• Cardiorespiratory endurance has a critical role in an individual’s ability to resist fatigue

• When comparing two people working at the same intensity, the individual with a higher VO2max will be working at a lower % of maximum aerobic capacity– Higher VO2max = ability to sustain activity at a

given intensity longer

Effects on Work Ability


Energy Systems• Various sports entail different energy demands• Long distance running and swimming vs.

sprinting and jumping• ATP: Immediate Energy Source

– ATP produced from glucose breakdown (carbohydrates)

– Glucose from blood or glycogen (muscle or liver) broken down to glucose and converted to ATP

– Fat becomes utilized when glycogen stores are depleted


• Aerobic versus Anaerobic Metabolism– Initially, for short burst of activity, ATP can be metabolized

quickly to meet needs• After a very short period of time those stores are depleted

– Initial ATP production from glucose occurs in muscle (without oxygen = anaerobic) Short bursts

• Lactic acid is also produced, Referred to as anaerobic metabolism,

– Transition to glucose and fat oxidation (requiring oxygen = aerobic) to continue activity, Longer duration

• Aerobic metabolism, Able to process lactate fully resulting in additional ATP production



ModeRelative Intensity Performance Frequency Duration Miscellaneous

Aerobic activities

Continuous, long-duration, sustained activities

Less intense

60% to 90% of maximum range

At least three but not more than six times per week

20 to 60 min

Less risk to sedentary or older individuals

Anaerobic activities

Explosive, short-duration, burst-type activities

More intense

90% to 100% of maximum range

Three to four times per week

10 sec to 2 min

Used in sport and team activities

TABLE 4-1

Comparison of Aerobic versus Anaerobic Activities

QUESTION

• List 3 anaerobic sports

• List 3 aerobic sports


Training Techniques for Improving Cardiorespiratory

Endurance• Level of improvement will be determined by

initial levels• Continuous Training involves 4 things:

– Frequency (at least 3 times/week aim for 4-5) allow at least 1 day rest

– Intensity- most critical factor • Must elevate heart rate to 70% of maximum

– Type of activity- must be aerobic in nature– Time (at least 20 minutes)


Finding Your Intensity• Target Heart Rate

– Determine maximum heart rate (HRmax)• Involves exercising at max levels and monitoring HR

using an electrocardiogram• Approximations can also be used as well• 220-age = HRmax

• Heart Rate Reserve (HRR)– Difference between resting (HRrest) and HRmax

• Potential of heart rate training intensities


1. What is your HRmax?220- age = ____________

2. Find your resting heart rate (HRrest).Find your pulse (brachial-wrist or carotid-

neck)

Take for 15 seconds, multiple by 4

3. What is your HRR?HRR = HRmax – HRrest


– Karvonen Equation• Used to calculate exercise heart rate at a given

percentage of training intensity• Requires resting HR and HRmax

Exercise HR = % of target intensity(HRmax – HRrest) + HRrest

• These values are always predictions when using estimate HR values (max and rest)

• Minimum is 60% Maximum is 85% (want average 70%)


Find your target heart rate at 70%

Karvonen Equation

Exercise or Target HR = % of target intensity (HRmax – HRrest) + HrRest

X = .7 (answer to number 3) + answer to number 2 (do multiplication first)

Your exercise heart rate for proper intensity.


Interval training: Intermittent activities involving periods of intense work and active recovery

– Must occur at 60-80% of maximal heart rate

– Allows for higher intensity training at short intervals over an extended period of time

– Most anaerobic sports require short burst which can be mimicked through interval training


QUESTION

List 2-3 examples of interval training.


Speed Play: Type of cross-country running, must run for a specific time; pace and speed not defined

• Originally referred to as Fartlek

– Consists of varied terrain which incorporates varying degrees of hills

– Dynamic form of training

– Must elevate heart rate to minimal levels to be effective

– Popular form of training in off-season


Importance of Muscular Strength,

Endurance and Power


Muscle Strength, Power, and Endurance

• Strength: Maximum force that can be applied by a muscle during a single maximum contraction– ability to generate force against resistance

• Power: The ability to generate force rapidly– is the relationship between strength and time

• Muscular endurance: repetitive muscular contractions against some resistance (increase strength = increase endurance


Physiological and Biomechanical Factors that Determine Levels of

Muscular Strength• Hypertrophy (increase in muscle cell size) vs.

Atrophy (decrease in muscle cell size) can increase with training– Increase blood supply and/ or dormant capillaries

fill with blood

– Muscle protein fibers called myofilaments increase in size and number

• Size of muscle: function of diameter and number of fibers; an inherited trait (born with)


• Improved Neuromuscular Efficiency– Early gains minus hypertrophy– Enhanced efficiency due to enhanced

neural function; incorporating more muscle fibers


• Biomechanical Factors– Bones, muscles, and

tendons create a series of levers and pulleys that generate force against external objects

– Particular attachments of muscles to bones will determine how much force the muscle is capable of generating

Figure 4-8 A & BPerson B should be able to generate greater force than person A because the tendon attachment is closer to the resistance.


• Overtraining– Can result in psychological and physiological

breakdown resulting in injury, fatigue and illness– Training appropriately, eating right, and getting

appropriate amounts of rest are critical for prevention

• Reversibility– Gains in muscular strength resulting from resistance

training can be reversed– Declines in training or stopping all together will result in

rapid decreases in strength


Fast Twitch vs. Slow Twitch

• Fibers within a particular motor unit display distinct metabolic and contractile capability (inherited trait)

Slow twitch (Type I, slow oxidative): – Fatigue resistant– Time necessary to produce force is greater– Long duration, aerobic type activities– Generally major constituent of postural muscles


Fast twitch (Type II, fast oxidative glycolytic)– Fatigue easy– Anaerobic in nature– High force in short amount of time– Produce powerful movements– 3 Types

• IIa = Moderately fatigue resistant• IIx & IId = Fast glycolytic, short anaerobic burst, less mitochondrial

density as compared to IIa• IIb = True fast-twitch; very low mitochondrial density


Individual make-up– Muscles contain both types of fibers– Fiber type ratios vary between muscles

• Impacts muscle function• Postural vs. powerful movement

– May impact an individual’s abilities for a given sport

* Metabolic capabilities can change in response to training


Muscle Contractions

• Isometric contraction – No length change occurs during contraction– Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab– Con: only works at one point in ROM

• Isotonic contraction– Concentric- shortening of muscle with contraction

in an effort to overcome more resistance– Eccentric - lengthening of muscle with contraction

because load is greater than force being produced– Both are considered dynamic movements


Part II


Techniques of Resistance Training

• Overload principle must be applied– Must work muscle at increasingly higher

intensities to enhance strength over time

• If intensity of training does not increase, but training continues, muscle strength will be sustained, will not decrease or increase


Overload Principle

• Activity must be increased and

upgraded constantly in order to gain a

higher response from the body (SAID

principle)

• Work at or near maximum capacity

– Applicable to conditioning and training


Functional Training• Uses integrated exercises

designed to improve functional movement patterns– Training for strength and

neuromuscular control

• Driven by the kinetic chain concept

• Training in 3 planes of motion– Involves integration of proprioceptive

feedback to perform tri-planar movement tasks

• Avoids isolated single plane training

• Designed to enhance neuromuscular efficiency Figure 4-

10© 2011 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

• If any link in kinetic chain is not working efficiently compensations may occur– Leads to injury, predictable injury patterns, decreased

performance

• Designed to enhance functional movement patterns

• Works on core strength and dynamic flexibility• Training variables

– Plane of motion, body position, base of support, balance modality, external resistance


Core Stabilization Training• The core is the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex

– Muscles include lumbar spine, abdomen, hips and pelvis– Center of gravity is located there

• Core training works to improve– Dynamic postural control– Muscular balance– Functional strength– Neuromuscular efficiency

• Body must be adequately stabilized – Allows muscles (prime movers) to generate strong, powerful,

movements


• A weak core can lead to inefficient movements and potentially injury

Figure 4-11


• Contraction where muscle length remains unchanged; Max force against an immovable resistance

• Muscle contraction that lasts 10 seconds and should be perform 5-10 times/daily

• Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for rehabilitation

• Con: only works at one point in ROM, produces spiking of blood pressure due to Valsalva maneuver – Continue breathing to minimize increase in pressure

Isometric Exercise


Scenario- Lifting

– Muscles Shorten/ lengthen through a fixed resistance

• Concentric vs. Eccentric

– Various types of equipment can be utilized

• (Free weights, machine weight)

– Spotter is necessary for free weight training to prevent injury, motivate partner and instruct on technique

Progressive Resistance Exercise

Figure 4-13 A & B© 2011 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Spotting for Free Weight Exercises

A Spotter has 3 Functions

1. To protect the lifter from injury

2. Make recommendations on proper lifting techniques

3. Help motivate the lifter

• Concentric (muscle shortens) and eccentric (muscle lengthens) training should be incorporated for greatest strength improvement

• Concentric (Positive) phase of lift should last 1-2 seconds, eccentric (negative) phase 2-4 seconds

• Variations exist between free and machine weight lifting– Motion restrictions, levels of muscular control

required, amount of weight that can be lifted

Isotonic Strength Training


Progressive Resistance Exercise Techniques– Repetitions: # of times a

specific movement is completed

– Repetition maximum: the max # of reps at a certain weight

– One repetition maximum: max amount of weight that can be lifted at one time

Figure 4-13 E, F, J


– Set: a particular number of reps– Intensity: the amount of weight or

resistance– Recovery period: the rest intervals

between sets (60- 90 secs)– Frequency: the number of times an

exercise is down in one week

• When training, should be able to perform 3 sets of 6-8 repetitions

• Increases should occur in increments of 10%

• 1 RM can be utilized measure maximum amount of weight that can be lifted - must be very careful

• Training of a particular muscle group should occur 3-4 times per week (not on successive days)


Muscular Endurance vs. Strength

• Training for endurance enhances strength and vice versa

• Training for strength should involve lower repetitions at heavier weight

• Training for endurance requires lower weight at 12-15 repetitions

• Persons that possess greater strength also tend to exhibit greater muscular endurance


Isokinetic Training

• Muscle contraction at a constant velocity, speed

• Maximal and constant resistance throughout the full range of motion

• Maximal effort = Maximal strength gains• Disadvantages

– Cost– Need for maximal effort/motivation

• Rehabilitation


Figure 4-15


Circuit Training• Combination of exercise stations• 8 - 12 stations, 3 times through• Design for different training goals

– Flexibility– Calisthenics– Aerobic exercise

• Utilized in the majority of fitness centers in both corporate and health club settings

• May be beneficial both in terms of strength & endurance


Calisthenic Strengthening Exercises

• Free exercise• Isotonic training• Gravity’s involvement determines level of

intensity• Full range of motion, may incorporate

holding phase• Pull-ups, push-ups, back extensions, leg

extensions


Plyometric Exercise

• Rapid stretch, eccentric contraction followed by a rapid concentric contraction to create a forceful explosive movement (quick action)

• Stretch-shortening cycle– Underlying mechanism for plyometrics– Muscle takes advantage of potential energy,

resulting in increased power production

• Rate of stretch vs. magnitude


• Jumps, bounds, medicine ball throws

• Very technical training – Skills must be learned with

appropriate technique

• Allows for functional strengthening of muscles, tendons and ligaments

• Advantage– Helps in development of

eccentric control of dynamic movements

Figure 4-16 D, I, J


Training for the Female

• Critical for females

• Significant hypertrophy is related to testosterone present within body (women have lower levels)

• Remarkable gains are experienced initially due to enhanced nervous system and muscle interaction (efficiency-not muscle bulk)

• Following initial gains, plateau occurs, with females


• Males tend to continue to increase strength with training

• Critical difference is the ratio of strength to body fat– Females have reduced strength to body weight

ratio due to higher percentage of body fat– Ratio can be enhanced through weight training

and decrease in body fat percentage/increased lean weight


Strength Training in Prepubescent and Adolescents

• If properly supervised younger individuals can improve strength, power, endurance, balance and proprioception

• Develop a positive body image

• Results in improved sports performance while preventing injuries


• Strength gains can occur without significant muscle hypertrophy

• Close supervision and instruction is critical

• Progression = based on physical maturity

• Calisthenic exercises and body weight as resistance can be utilized in a functional strengthening program


Flexibility vs. Strength

• Co-exist• Believed that individuals that are “muscle

bound” = zero flexibility?• Strength training will provide individual with

ability to develop dynamic flexibility through full range of motion

• Develop more powerful and coordinated movements


Part III

Improving and Maintaining Flexibility

• Flexibility: Ability to move a joint(s) smoothly through a full range of motion (ROM)

• Good flexibility is essential for successful physical performance

• Normal ROM has been recognized as acceptable for normal daily function


• Results of stretching and flexibility research– Conflicting evidence

regarding the impact on performance capabilities

– Uncoordinated/awkward movements may result if ROM is limited

– Recommended by athletic trainers to prevent injury, however

Figure 4-17© 2011 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Factors That Limit Flexibility• Bony structures: bony prominences

ie elbow• Excessive fat: acts as a wedge• Skin: inelastic scar tissue• Muscle and tendon lengths: most

often responsible for limiting ROM• Connective tissue: ligaments and

joint capsule scarring


What are the factors that limit flexibility?

• Bone

• Fat

• Skin

• Muscles/ Tendons

• Connective Tissue

Agonist vs. Antagonist Muscles

• Joints are capable of multiple movements• Agonist: Muscle producing movement (muscle

contracting)– IE: Quadriceps contract to produce knee extension

• Antagonist: Muscle undergoing stretch during movement (muscle being stretched)– IE: Hamstrings will stretch during knee extension

• Agonist and antagonist work together to produce smooth coordinated movements


Question

• With an arm curl…– What is the agonist muscle?– What is the antagonist muscle?

Range of Motion(ROM)

• Active range of motion – AKA- Dynamic

flexibility– The degree in

which a joint can be moved through a muscle contraction

• Passive range of motion– AKA- Static

flexibility– The degree in

which a joint may be passively moved, no muscle contraction


Range of Motion

• Must be able to move through unrestricted range

• Must have elasticity for additional stretch encountered during activity


QUESTION:

• What ROM (range of motion) will be greater, AROM (active range of motion) or PROM (passive range of motion)?

• WHY?

Mechanisms for Improving Flexibility

• Improvements in ROM may not all be attributed to the stretch reflex

• Some studies indicate that it is the result of one’s ability to tolerate the stretch

• Others indicate that the viscoelastic properties of the tissues are another possible mechanism


Neurophysiological Basis of Stretching

Stretch Reflex– Muscle is placed on stretch– Muscle spindles & Golgi tendon organs (GTO) fire

relaying information to spinal cord– Spinal cord relays message to golgi tendon and

increases tension– After 6 seconds GTO relays signal for muscle

tension to decrease• Results in reflex relaxation of antagonist• Prevents injury - protective mechanism


Why would you hold a stretch for over 6 seconds?

Stretching TechniquesBallistic- uses repetitive bouncing motion

– Bouncing movement in which repetitive contractions of agonist work to stretch antagonist muscle

– Possible soreness due to repeated eccentric contractions of antagonist

Dynamic Stretching- forceful contractions of the agonist muscle– May more closely mimic muscle activity during

sport/activity – Considered functional and often suggested for athletes

prior to activity


http://orgs.jmu.edu/strength/JMU_Summer_2000_WebPage/JMU_Summer_2000_Sections/9_summer_dynamic_flexibilty.htm

Static stretching– Passively stretching by placing

it in a max stretch and holding– 6-8 second hold– Go to point of pain and back

off and hold for 30 seconds (3 to 4 times)

– Controlled, less chance of injury

– Not dynamic– Does not require a partner

Figure 4-21 B


• Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) Techniques– Alternates contractions with stretches

• Slow-reversal-hold-relax

• Contract-relax

• Hold-relax

– Best technique to improve flexibility– Autogenic inhibition (push = tension)– Reciprocal inhibition (pull = relax)– All techniques involve 10 sec active

contract push and relax

Figure 4-21 C


• Stretching Fascia (covers the muscle)– Fascia can limit

motion (pain, injury, inflammation)

– Can be performed manually or using foam roller

Figure 4-21 D & E


The Pilates Method

• Conditioning program that improves muscle control, flexibility, coordination, strength and tone

• Enhances body awareness, improves body alignment and breathing, increases movement efficiency

• Designed to stretch and strengthen muscles through a sequence of carefully performed movements


• Utilizes specific breathing pattern for each exercise

• Generally begins with one-on-one session in order to assess client’s physical condition


Yoga

• Based on philosophy that illness is related to poor mental attitude, posture and diet

• Reduce stress through mental and physical approaches

• Used to unite mind and body

• Involves various postures and breathing exercises– Designed to increase mobility and flexibility


SCENARIO- STRETCHING

Measuring Range of Motion

• Various devices have been designed to accommodate joint sizes and complexities of movement

• 1. Goniometer most widely used device– Protractor (degrees) that utilizes alignment

of two arms parallel to longitudinal axis of two segments involved in motion

– Relatively accurate tool for measurement


• 2. Inclinometers more precise and highly reliable

- Often used in research

- Very affordable

- Can be used on a variety of joints

Figure 4-25: Top-Goniometer; Bottom: Inclinometer


• Provides coaching and athletic training personnel with information relative to fitness and preparedness– Baseline information

• Pre-testing and post-testing format should be utilized

• Can assess all facets of training and conditioning with established tests and protocols

Fitness Assessments


Periodization in Training and Conditioning

• Traditional seasons no longer exist for serious athletes

• Periodization– Achieve peak performance– Decrease injuries and overtraining– Program that spans various seasons– Modify program relative to athlete’s needs


Macrocycle

• Complete training cycle (one year for traditional, 4 years for Olympic)

• Seasonal approach based on preseason, in-season, and off-season

• Changes in intensity, volume, specificity of training occur in order to achieve peak levels of fitness for competition

• Broken into mesocycles (lasting weeks or months)


MesocyclesTransition period:

– Follows last competition – Unstructured (escape rigors of training),

encourages to participate in recreational activities


Preparatory period:– Off-season to pre-season1. Hypertrophy/endurance phase (Low intensity with

high volume)• Allows for development of endurance base• Lasts several weeks to 2 months

2. Strength Phase • Moderate intensity and volume• More sports specific

3. Power Phase (Pre-season)• High intensity/ decreased volume• Sports specific

Competition period:– May last a < week or several months for seasonal

sports– High intensity, low volume, skill training sessions– Maintenance– May incorporate microcycles (1-7 days)

• Designed to ensure peak on days of competition (intense early in the microcycle and progress to moderate then light training the day before)


SCENARIO- TRAINING

Cross Training

• Training for a sport with substitutions of alternative activities (carryover value)

• Useful in transition and preparatory periods

• Can add variety to training regimen

• Should be discontinued prior to preseason as it is not sport-specific


Chapter 4: Conditioning Techniques © 2011 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

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Transcript of Chapter 4: Conditioning Techniques © 2011 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.