Chapter 37 Lecture - Oak Park Independent€¦ · – Provided for admission of close relatives of...

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Chapter 37The StormySixties,

1963–1973

Presented by:

Mr. Anderson, M.Ed., J.D.

I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency

• LyndonBaines Johnson (LBJ):– BecamepresidentuponJFK'sassassination– SenttoCongressin1937atage29– FDRwashispolitical“Daddy,” Johnsonclaimed

• LBJstronglysupportedNewDealmeasures• WhenhelostabidforSenate(1941),LBJlearnedthatliberalpoliticsdidnotwinelectionsinTexas

• WonaSenateseatin1948byshiftinghispoliciestorightandbyaquestionable87-votemargin—hencenickname“LandsideLyndon”

I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency(cont.)

• InSenate, Johnson developed into masterwheeler-dealer:– BecameDemocraticmajorityleader in1954

• Usedwhatwascalledthe“Johnsontreatment”—intimidatingdisplayofbackslapping,flesh-pressing,andarm-twistingthatoverborefriendsandfoesalike

• Hisegoandvanitywerelegendary• Aspresident,heshreddedconservativecolorationofhisSenateyearstoreveallatentliberalunderneath

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• Congress passedCivil Rights Actof1964:– Bannedracialdiscriminationinmostprivatefacilitiesopentopublic• Includingtheaters,hospitals,restaurants

– Strengthenedfederalgovernment'spowertoendsegregationinschoolsandpublicplaces

– TitleVIIbarredemployersfromdiscriminatingonraceornationalorigininhiring

– EmpoweredEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC)toenforcelaw


– TitleVIIpassedwithgenderclauseintact• Provedtobepowerfulinstrumentoffederally-enforcedgenderequality

– Johnson(1965)issuedexecutiveorderrequiringallfederal contractorstotakeaffirmativeactionagainstdiscrimination

• Johnson alsopushedthrough Congress:– Kennedy'sstalledtaxbill– Proposalsforbillion-dollar“WaronPoverty”


• Concerns about povertyraisedbyMichaelHarrington's TheOtherAmerica (1962):– Revealed that20%ofpopulation,andover40%ofblackpopulation,sufferedpoverty

• WaronPovertypartofLBJ'sGreatSociety:– SweepingNewDeal-styledomesticreforms

• Targetedremainingpocketsofpoverty• Majornewinvestmentsineducationandarts

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II.JohnsonBattlesGoldwaterin1964

• Election of1964:– Johnson'snominationaforegoneconclusion

• ChosenbyacclamationinAtlanticCity• DemocratsstoodfoursquareonmostliberalplatformsinceTruman'sFairDealdays

– Republicans• MetinSanFrancisco,nominatedSenatorBarryGoldwater,arock-ribbedconservative

• Stagesetforhistoricclashofpoliticalprinciples

II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin1964(cont.)

• Goldwater'sforcestrouncedmoderate“easternestablishment”• Goldwaterattacked:

– Federal incometax, social security system, TVA– Civil rights legislation, nuclear test-ban treaty– Most loudly, theGreatSociety

• Hisnominationreflectedgrowingconservativemovement– Gathered strength inmushrooming middle-class suburbs ofSunbelt

– LedbyWilliam F.Buckleyand YoungAmericans forFreedom– Well-received bywhite southerners angryatCivil Rights Actof1964

• Democrats' attackonGoldwater:– Exploited imageofGoldwater as trigger-happy cowboy

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– Johnson'simageasresolutestatesman• SeizeduponTonkinGulfepisodeinAugust1964:

– Covert U.S.help toSouthVietnamese raids onN.Vietnam

– LBJpublically calledalleged attacks“unprovoked”– Ordered “limited” retaliatory air raid– Claimed hesought “nowider war”– GotCongress topass all-purpose Tonkin GulfResolution:

» Congress abdicated war-declaring powers» Handed president ablank checktouse further forceinSoutheast Asia


• Election results:– VotersflockedtoJohnsonbecause:

• FondnessforKennedylegacy• FaithinGreatSocietypromises• FearofGoldwater

– Count:• Popularvote:

– Johnson—43,129, 566; Goldwater—27,178 ,188

• Electoralcount:– Johnson's 486 to52 forGoldwater (seeMap 37.1)

Map 37-1 p886

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• Goldwater:• CarriedonlyhisnativeArizonaandfivestatesinSouth• SouthtraditionallyDemocraticbutnowraciallyrestless

• Johnson:• Recordbreaking61%ofpopularvotesweptlopsidedDemocraticmajoritiesintobothhousesofCongress

III.TheGreatSocietyCongress– Johnson'swintemporarilysmashedconservativecongressionalcoalitionofsouthernDemocratsandnorthernRepublicans

– RoadopenforGreatSocietyreforms:• LBJhelpedbygrowingeconomy• WaronPoverty:

– Doubled appropriation ofOfficeofEconomicOpportunity to$2billion

– Granted more than$1billion toredevelop Appalachia

• Createdtwonewdepartments:» Department ofTransportation» Department ofHousing and UrbanDevelopment (HUD)

III.TheGreatSocietyCongress(cont.)

– Named first blackcabinet secretary innation's history—respected economist Robert C.Weaver—to HUD

• EstablishedNationalEndowmentsfortheArtsandfortheHumanities:

– Designed to lift levelofAmerican cultural life

– BigFourlegislativeachievementscrownedLBJ'sGreatSocietyprograms:• Aidtoeducation

– Toavoid separation ofchurchandstate issue, LBJawardedaiddirectly tostudents

» Signed bill inhumble one-room Texasschool-house heattended asachild

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• MedicareforelderlyandMedicaidforpoor:– Created “entitlements”

» Rights forcertain categories ofAmericans in perpetuity» Without need for repeated congressional approval

– Partof spreading “rights revolution” thathelped millions, butalsocreated long-term financial problems for federalgovernment

• Immigrationreform:– Immigration andNationality Actof1965 abolished “national-origins” quota system inplace since1921 (seeChap.30)

– Doubled number of immigrants allowed toenterannually to290,000

– For first time, set limits on immigrants fromWestern Hemisphere(120,000)


– Provided foradmission ofclose relatives ofU.S.citizens,outside numerical limits

» 100,000 people peryear tookadvantageof“familyunification” provision indecades after1965

– Sourceof immigration shifted fromEurope toLatinAmericaandAsia

– GreatSocietyprogramscame inforpoliticalattacksinlateryears:• Conservativeschargedbillionsspentfor“socialengineering” wasted

• Yetpovertyleveldeclinedinensuringdecade(seeFigure37.1)

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• Medicaredramaticallyreducedpovertyamongelderly• ProjectHeadStart—sharplyimprovededucationalperformanceofunderprivilegedyouth

• GreatSocietyprogramsreducedinfantmortalityratesinminoritycommunities

Figure 37-1 p888

IV.BattlingforBlackRights

• VotingRights Actof1965:– OneofAmerica'smostpersistentevils—racialdiscrimination• CivilRightsActof1964:

– Gavefederal government moremuscle toenforceschool-desegregation orders

– And toprohibit racialdiscrimination inpublicaccommodations andemployment

• Problemofvotingremained:– Mississippi: only 5%ofeligible blacks registered tovote– Similar throughout South

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IV.BattlingforBlackRights(cont.)

– Ballot-denying devices:poll tax, literacy tests, barefacedintimidation

– Mississippi required names ofprospective black registrants bepublished for twoweeks in local newspapers—virtual lyguaranteed economic reprisals, orworse

• 1964:votingbecomechiefgoalofblackmovement– Twenty-fourth Amendment, ratified January 1964, abolished polltaxin federalelections (seeAppendix)

– Freedom Summer 1964:blacks joined with whites inmassivevoter-registration drive in Mississippi

» InJune, oneblackand two white civil rights workersmurdered

» Mississippi officials refused toprosecute those responsible


• August:integratedMississippiFreedomDemocraticpartydelegationdeniedseatsatDemocraticconvention

• Early1965,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,resumedvoter-registrationcampaigninSelma,Alabama:

– 50%ofcity's population black, butonly 1%of itsvoters– AUnitarian minister killed

– Fewdays later, awhite Detroit woman murdered byKlansmen


– JohnsonshepherdedthroughCongresslandmarkVotingRightsActof1965;signedintolawAugust6• Outlawedliteracytests• Sentfederalvoterregistrarsintoseveralsouthernstates• Overtimebroughtdramaticchangetosouthernpoliticsandbusinesses

• Soonblacksbegantomigrateinto Southforfirsttimesinceemancipation

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V.BlackPower

• VotingRights Actof1965:– Lastmajorlegislativevictoryofsouthern-focused,integrationist,nonviolentcivilrightsmovement

– IncreasedfocusonstrugglesinurbanNorthagainstdiscriminationandpolicebrutality• FivedaysafterLBJsignedVotingRightsAct,bloodyrioteruptedinWatts,ablackghettoinLosAngeles

– 31blacksand 3whites killed; more than athousand peopleinjured; hundreds ofbuildings charred andgutted

• Heraldedshifttomilitancy,radicalism,andseparatism

V.BlackPower(cont.)

• Leadership ofMalcolm X:– BornMalcolmLittle,hewasinspiredbymilitantblacknationalistsinNationofIslam• LikeNation'sfounder—ElijahMuhammed(bornElijahPoole),MalcolmchangedhissurnametoadvertiselostAfricanidentityinwhiteAmerica

• MalcolmXtrumpetedblackseparatism• LaterbrokewithElijahMuhammed'sseparatism;movedtowardmainstreamIslam

• Early1965,killedbyNationofIslamgunmen

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V.BlackPower(cont.)• Socialist BlackPanther party used “citizens'patrols” toresist police brutality

• In1966, StokelyCarmichael, SNCC leader:• BegantopreachdoctrineofBlackPower• LikeGarveyof1920s(seeChap.30),CarmichaelbreathedseparatistmeaningintoconceptofBlackPower

– Emphasized African American distinctiveness

– Promoted “Afro” hairstyles and dress– Shed“white” names fornew African identities– Demanded blackstudies programs ineducation

V.BlackPower(cont.)• 1967:moreriots inblackurban ghettos

– Newark,NewJersey(killed25people)– Detroit,Michigan(killed43people)

• AsinWatts(1965),rioterstorchedneighborhoods• Attackedpoliceofficersandevenfirefighters

– RiotsangeredmanywhiteAmericans,whothreatened toretaliate

– Riotsbafflednorthernerswhoconsideredracialproblemsa“southern” question

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V.BlackPower(cont.)

– Blacksmovednorthover1900s– Facedresidentialdiscrimination,whiteoutmigrationtosuburbs,anddeindustrialization• Blackunemploymentnearlydoublethatofwhites

– DespairdeepenedwhenMartinLutherKing,Jr.,murderedonApril4,1968• Triggeredmoreriots

– Riotersmadenews,butthousandsofotherblacksquietlymadehistory• BlackvoterregistrationinSouthshotupward

V.BlackPower(cont.)• Bylate1960s,severalhundredblacksheldelectedofficeinOldSouth

• Cleveland,OhioandGary,Indianaelectedblackmayors

• By1972,nearlyhalfofsouthernblackchildreninintegratedschools

– More schools integrated inSouth than North

• Aboutathirdofblackshadrisenintomiddleclass• Kingleftshininglegacyofracialprogress,buthewascutdownwhenjobfarfromdone

VI.VietnamVexations

– VietCong(guerillasloyaltoNorthVietnamesecommunists)attackedU.S.airbaseatPleiku,SouthVietnam,February1965

– Johnsonorderedretaliatorybombingraidsagainstmilitary installationsinNorthVietnam

– Forfirsttime,orderedU.S.combattroopstoSouthVietnam• Bymid-March,“OperationRollingThunder” infullswing—regularbombingagainstNorthVietnam

• Before1965ended,184,000Americantroopsinvolved

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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)• Johnsonhadtakenslipperypathtoward“escalation”ofU.S.troopstodriveenemytodefeat

• GuerrillaenemymatchedeveryAmericanincrease• SouthVietnamesebecamespectatorsaswarbecameAmericanized

• CorruptandcollapsiblegovernmentsinSaigonsucceededeachother

• YetU.S.A.claimedtobedefendingademocratically• “Hawks” defendedwarasnecessarytoshowU.S.“commitment” tofulfillnumeroustreatypledgestoresistcommunistencroachment

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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)• JohnsonsteadilyraisedmilitarystakesinVietnam

– By1968, ahalf million troops thereand annual bill forwarexceeded$30billion

– Still endnowhere in sight

• U.S.A.couldnot defeatenemyinVietnam, butitseemedtobebringing defeatupon itself– Worldreactions:

• SeveralnationsexpelledPeaceCorpsvolunteers• deGaullewithdrewFrancefromNATOin1966

– Ordered all American troops outofFrance

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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)

– OvercommitmenttiedAmerica'shandselsewhere– InSix-DayWar (1967),Israel:

• DefeatedEgypt,Jordan,andSyria• GainedterritoriesinSinaiPeninsula,GolanHeights,GazaStrip,andWestBankofJordanRiver,includingJerusalem(seeMap39.2)

– VictorybroughtonemillionresentfulPalestinianArabsunderdirectIsraelicontrol

– Another350,000PalestinianrefugeesfledtoneighboringJordan

VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)• IsraellateragreedtowithdrawfromSinaiaftersigningapeacetreatywithEgypt

• Israelrefusedtorelinquishotherareaswithoutatreaty

• BeganmovingJewishsettlersintoheavilyArabdistrictofWestBank

– Six-DayWarintensifiedproblemsofvolatileMiddleEast• IntractablestandoffbetweenIsraelisandPalestinians


– DomesticdiscontentfesteredoverVietnam:• Campus“teach-ins” in1965• Graduallyprotestsgrewtotidal-waveproportions• Draftclaimedmoreandmoreyoungmen• ThousandsofdraftregistrantsfledtoCanada• Otherspubliclyburneddraftcards• Hundredsofthousandsmarchedinprotest• ManyAmericansfeltpangsofconscienceatburningpeasanthutsandusingdestructiveweapons

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– Congress'soppositiontoVietnam:• CenteredinSenateCommitteeonForeignRelations,headedbySenatorWilliamFulbright

– Heldseries of televised hearings in1966 and1967

– Public cameto feel theyhadbeendeceived about causesand“winnability” ofwar

• “Credibilitygap” openedbetweengovernmentandpublic

– Withinadministrationitself:• DoubtsdeepenedaboutwisdomofwarinVietnam

– When Defense SecretaryMcNamara expressed misgivingsabout war, hewas easedout ofoffice

VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)• By1968,brutalandfutilestrugglehadbecomelongestandmostunpopularforeignwartodateforU.S.A.

• Casualties(killedandwounded)alreadyexceeded100,000

• MorebombsdroppedonVietnam,thanonallenemyterritoryinWWII

• GovernmentutterlyfailedtoexplaintothepeoplewhatwassupposedtobeatstakeinVietnam


• Johnson:• OrderedCIA,inclearviolationofitscharter,tospyondomesticantiwaractivists

• EncouragedFBItoturnitscounterintelligenceprogram,“Cointelpro,” againstpeacemovement

– “Cointelpro” falsely labeled leading “doves” ascommunistsympathizers

– TacticsmadeFBIlook like totalitarian state's secretpolicerather thanguardian ofAmerican democracy

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• Evidencemounted thatUSAtrapped inacivilwar(motivated rebels vs.brutalgovernment)– YetLBJclungtostrategyofratchetinguppressurebitbybit

– StubbornlyassuredAmericansthathecouldsee“thelightattheendofthetunnel”

– TogrowingnumbersofAmericans,itseemedLBJbenton“saving” Vietnambydestroyingit

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VII.VietnamTopples Johnson

• January1968, communist offensivelaunchedonTet, VietnameseNewYear

• VietCongattacked27SouthVietnamesecities,includingcapitalSaigon

• ShowedJohnson'sstrategyofcontinualescalationnotworking

• TetoffensiveendedinmilitarydefeatbutpoliticalvictoryforVietCong

– U.S.public opinion increasingly demanded end towar

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VII.VietnamTopples Johnson(cont.)

– Americanmilitaryleaders respondedtoTetwithrequestfor200,000moretroops• Requeststaggeredmanypolicymakers

– LBJchallengedwithinhisownparty:• EugeneMcCarthyreceived41.4%ofvoteinNewHampshireprimaryonMarch12,1968

• Johnson'sstarfellfurtherfourdayslaterwhenRobertF.Kennedyenteredracefornomination

– Kennedy stirred passionate response amongworkers,African Americans, Latinos, andyoungpeople

VII.VietnamTopples Johnson(cont.)

– Mar.31:Johnsonannouncedhewouldfreezetroopslevelsandscalebackbombing• Declaredhewouldnotbeacandidatein1968election

– Johnson's“abdication” hadeffectofpreservingmilitary statusquo• Heheld“hawks” incheck,whileofferinghimselfasasacrificetomilitant“doves”

• U.S.A.couldmaintainmaximumacceptablelevelofmilitaryactivityinVietnam,whiletryingtonegotiateasettlement

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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968

– 1968oneofhottestpoliticalseasonsinU.S.history• VicepresidentHubertH.HumphreywasLBJ'sheirapparentforDemocraticnomination

• MeanwhileMcCarthyandKennedydueledinprimaries– OnJune5, 1968, Kennedy killed byArab immigrant resentful ofRFK's pro-Israel views

• AntiwargroupsconvergedonDemocraticconventioninChicago,August1968

• Exasperatedbysomemilitantdemonstrators,policebrokeintoa“policeriot” onguiltyandinnocentalike

• Humphreygainednominationonfirstballotbecauseprocessprivilegedpartyofficialsoverprimaryresults

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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)

– Republicanconvention,MiamiBeach• RichardM.NixonbecamecandidateacceptabletoGoldwaterconservativesaswellaspartymoderates

• TappedMaryland'sGovernorSpiroT.Agnewasrunningmatetoappealtowhitesoutherners

– Agnew tough ondissidents andblackmilitants

• PlatformcalledforvictoryinVietnamandstronganticrimepolicy

• “Spoiler” thirdpartyticket—AmericanIndependentparty—headedbyGeorgeC.Wallace

– Gained famewith hisopposition toCivil Rights Movement

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– BetweenpositionsofRepublicansandDemocratsonVietnam,therewaslittlechoice:• Bothcandidatescommittedtocontinuewaruntilenemysettledfor“honorablepeace” (i.e.,U.S.win)

• Millionsof“doves” hadnoplacetoroost– Manyrefused tovoteatall

• Humphrey,scorchedbyLBJbrand,wentdowntodefeatasloyalprisonerofhischief'spolicies


– Nixonwon:• 301electoralvotes,43.4%ofpopulartally(31,785,480)• Humphrey:191electoralvotes,42.7ofpopularvotes(31,275,166)(seeMap37.2)

• HoweverNixon– FacedDemocraticmajorities in bothhouses ofCongress– Carried not asingle majorcity– Received noclearmandate todoanything– Aminority president whoowed his election todivisions overwarandprotest against unfairdraft, crime, and rioting

Map 37-2 p895

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– Wallace:• Wonimpressive9,906,473popularvotes• 46electoralvotes,allfromfivestatesofDeepSouth

– fourofwhich Goldwater hadcarried in 1964

• Wallaceamassedlargestthird-partypopularvoteinU.S.historytothatpoint

• Lastthird-partycandidatetowinanyelectoralvotes– Ross Perot in1992enjoyed agreaterpopular votemarginbutwon nostates (seeMap 40.1)

• Wallacedemonstratedcontinuingpowerof“populist” politics—appealtovoters' fearsandresentments


– JohnsonreturnedtoTexasinJanuary1969,onlytodiefouryearslater:• Hadsignificantachievementsincivilrightsandhelptopoor

• By1966LBJsinkingintoVietnamquicksand• Soaringwarcostsconsumedtaxdollars• WaronPovertymetresistanceandwouldeventuallygodownindefeat


• JohnsoncrucifiedhimselfoncrossofVietnam• ChosetodefendU.S.footholdandenlargeconflictratherthanwithdraw

• Decisionnottoescalatefightingfurtherin1968offended“hawks,” andhisrefusaltobackoffaltogetherantagonized“doves”

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IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s

– Strugglesof1960sagainstracism,poverty,andwarinVietnamhadmomentousculturalconsequences:

– Negativeattitudes toward all kinds ofauthority tookhold– Manyyoungpeople lost traditional moral rudders– Conventional wisdom and inherited ideas cameunder fire

– MainlineProtestantdenominationsweakened• Weeklychurchgoingdeclinedfrom48%inlate1950sto41%in1970s

• LiberalProtestantchurchessufferedmost– Increasingly cededreligious authority toconservative evangelicals– While surrendering cultural authority tosecular professionals andacademicsocial scientists

IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)

• AseducatedAmericansbecameincreasinglysecular,lesseducatedbecamemorereligious

• Religiousupheavaloccurredintradition-boundRomanCatholicChurchaftersecondVaticanCouncil

• SkepticismaboutauthorityhaddeephistoricalrootsinAmericanculture,includingin1950s:

– “Beat” movement rejected culture andpolitics ofdecade– Movies like RebelWithout aCause (1955)with youngactorJamesDeanexpressed restless frustration ofmanyyoungpeople


– Disaffectionofyoungcrescendoedin1960sasBabyBoomreachedcollegeage:• 1offirstprotestsagainstauthoritybrokeoutatUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyin1964

– FreeSpeechMovement—students objected toadministrative banonuse ofcampus space forpolitical debate

• ProtestsblossomedoverVietnamandsoonsawriseofself-conscious“counterculture” opposedtotraditionalways

• SocialupheavalfarfromAmerican-onlyphenomenon– Across globe, youth-driven political andsocial conflict roiled

– Helped byglobal reachofyouthpopculture, especially music

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• 1960switnessed“sexualrevolution”:– Introduction ofbirth controlpill (1960)madepregnancieseasier toavoidand sexualappetites easier tosatisfy

– Mattachine Society, founded inLosAngeles in1951, apioneering society advocating gayrights

– Stonewall Rebellion atNewYorkCity's Stonewall Inn(1969)proved turning point asvictims ofpolice brutality foughtback

– In1980s, worries about sexually transmitted diseases likegenital herpes and AIDS(acquired immunodeficiencysyndrome) slowed, butdid not reverse, sexual revolution

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• Launchedinyouthfulidealism,manyofdecade's“revolutions” sputteredoutinviolenceandcynicism

• StudentsforaDemocraticSociety(SDS):– Onceat forefrontofantipoverty andantiwar campaigns– Spawned underground terrorist group called Weathermen

• Peacefulcivilrightsdemonstrationsgavewaytourbanriots

• ExperimentswithmarijuanaandLSDspawnedunderworldofdruglordsandaddicts

• Criticsdenouncedself-indulgentromanticismof“flowerchildren”

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IX.TheCultureUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)

– Supportershailed“greening” ofAmerica• Materialismandimperialismreplacedbynewconsciousnessofhumanvalues

– Upheavalsof1960scanbeattributedtothreeP's:• Youthfulpopulationbulge• ProtestsagainstracismandVietnamWar• Prosperitythatseemedpermanentfixtureofpostwarera

– “Counterculture” maynothavereplacedoldervalues,butitweakened theirgrip,perhapspermanently

X.Nixon“Vietnamizes”theWar– InauguratedonJan.20,1969,Nixonwas:

• AnunlikelyconciliatorofclashingforcesrippingAmericansocietyapart

– Solitary andsuspicious

– Brittle and testy in faceofopposition– Bitterly resented “liberal establishment”

• Yet,hebroughtonehugevaluableassettoWhiteHouse:

– Broad knowledge and thoughtful expertise in foreign affairs

– Applied himself toputAmerica's foreign-policy inorder

• Firstgoal:quietuproaroverVietnam

X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar(cont.)

• Vietnamization policy:• Withdrawthe540,000troopsinSouthVietnamoveranextendedperiod

• SouthernVietnamese—withU.S.money,weapons,training,andadvice—wouldgraduallytakeoverwar

• NixonDoctrine thusevolved:• ProclaimedU.S.A.wouldhonoritsexistingdefensecommitments

• Infuture,allieswouldhavetofighttheirownwarswithoutsupportoflargebodiesofU.S.troops

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• NixonsoughttowinVietnamwarbyothermeans– Without further spilling American blood

• Advocatingimmediatewithdrawal,antiwarprotestersstagedbignationalVietnammoratoriuminOct.1969

• Nixonlaunchedcounteroffensivebyappealingtosilentmajoritywhopresumablysupportedwar

– Hisappeal deeply divisive

– VPAgnew attacked“nattering nabobs ofnegativism” whodemanded quick end towar

– In1970, Nixon sneered at student protesters as“bums”


– ByJan.1970,Vietnamhadbecameveryunpopular,evenamongU.S.troopsinfield

– Armed forcesinVietnamlargelycomposedofleastprivilegedyoungAmericans

– Early inwar,AfricanAmericans:• Disproportionatelyrepresentedinarmy• Accountedforhighestshareofcombatfatalities


– U.S.soldiers:• FoughtVietnameseaswellasbooby-trappedswampsandsteamingjungles

• Unabletotellfriendfromfoeamongpeasants• Drugabuse,mutiny,andsabotagedulledfightingedge

• Moraleplummetedfurtherwithrumorsthatsoldiers“fragged” theirofficers—murderedthemwithfragmentationgrenades

• Revelationsin1970about1968slaughterinMyLaideepeneddomesticdisgustwithwar

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XI.CambodianizingtheVietnamWar

– OnApr.29,1970Nixon,withoutconsultingCongress,orderedU.S.troopstocleanoutenemysanctuariesinofficiallyneutralCambodia

– Massivecampusriotsoverthisnewestescalation:• AtKentStateUniversity inOhio,jumpyNationalGuardfiredintonoisycrowd,killingfourandwoundingmanymore

• AthistoricallyblackJacksonStateCollege,Mississippi,highwaypatroldischargedvolleys,killingtwostudents

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XI.Cambodianizing theVietnamWar(cont.)

– NixonwithdrewtroopsfromCambodiaonJune29,1970,afteronlytwomonths

– ResultsofCambodianinvasion:• Amplifiedbitternessbetween“hawks” and“doves”• Disillusionmentwith“whitey'swar” increasedamongAfricanAmericansinarmedforces

• Senate(butnotHouse)repealedGulfofTonkinblankcheckthatCongressgaveJohnsonin1964

• Youthonlyslightlymollifiedwhengovernmentreduceddraftcallsandshortenedperiodofdraftability

– Ona lotterybasis, fromeight years tooneyear

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XI.Cambodianizing theVietnam(cont.)

• Youthpleased,thoughnotpacified,in1971when26thAmendmentloweredvotingageto18(seeAppendix)

• NewcombustiblesfueledfiresofantiwardiscontentinJune1971:

– FormerPentagon official leaked toNewYorkTimes thePentagon Papers, a top-secret Pentagon study

– Documented war's blunders and deceptions, especiallyprovoking of1964North Vietnamese attack inGulfofTonkin

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XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow

• Dramatic initiatives inBeijing andMoscow:• TwomajorCommunistpowersclashedoverinterpretationofMarxismaswellasborderbetweenthem

• NixonrealizedChinese-SoviettensionaffordedU.S.A.opportunitytoplayoneantagonistagainsttheother

• AndenlistaidofbothinpressuringNorthVietnamintopeace

• HenryKissingerhadbeenmeetingsecretlywithNorthVietnameseofficialsinParistonegotiateendtowar

• Hewasmeanwhilepreparingpresident'spathtoBeijingandMoscow

XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow (cont.)

– July1971: Nixonannounced hehadaccepted invitation tovisit Communist China the following year

– Made hishistoric journey inFebruary 1972– Capped visit with Shanghai Communiqué:

» Inwhich two nations agreed to“normalize”relationship

» Important partofaccordwas America's acceptanceof“one-China” policy

» Implied lessened American commitment toindependence ofTaiwan


– Nixonnext traveled toMoscow inMay1972:» Toplay“China card” ingameofhigh-stakes diplomacywith Kremlin

» Soviets ready todealwith United States

• Nixon'svisitusheredineraofdétente:– Relaxed tension—with majorcommunist powers

• Andproducedseveralsignificantagreementsin1972– Most important, USAandUSSRagreed toanti-ballisticmissile (ABM) treatyand toseries ofarms-reductionnegotiations known asSALT(StrategicArms Limitation Talks)

» Aimed at freezing numbers oflong-range missiles forfiveyears

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– ABM andSALTaccordsafirst step toward slowing arms race– Yetboth forgedahead with development of“MIRVs”(multiple independently targeted reentryvehicles)

» Putanumber ofwarheads ona single missile

• Nixon's détente diplomacy did, tosomeextent, de-ice ColdWar


• Nixon remained staunchly anticommunist• Opposed election ofMarxist SalvadorAllende topresidency ofChile in1970

• Allende diedduring anarmyattackonhisheadquarters in1973

• Nixon warmlyembraced Allende's successor,military dictator General AugustoPinochet

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XIII.ANewTeamontheSupremeBench

• Nixon andSupreme Court• In1968,Nixonlashedoutagainst“permissiveness”and“judicialactivism” ofWarrenCourt

• WarrenCourtaffectedsexualfreedom,criminalrights,practiceofreligion,civilrights,andrepresentation

• Griswoldv.Connecticut(1965):Courtvoidedstatelawthatbanneduseofcontraceptives,evenamongmarriedcouples,becauseof“rightofprivacy”

• Gideonv.Wainwright(1963):Courtheldthatallcriminaldefendantsentitledtolegalcounsel,eveniftoopoortoaffordit

XIII.ANewTermontheSupremeBench(cont.)

• Escobedo(1964)andMiranda(1966)ensuredrightofaccusedtoremainsilentandenjoyprotections

• Mirandawarning–policemustreadtosuspects

– Rulingssoughttopreventabusivepolicetactics• Toconservativesseemedtocoddlecriminalsandsubvertlawandorder

– ConservativesalsoobjectedtoCourt'sviewsonreligion:


– InEngelv.Vitale(1962)andSchoolDistrictofAbingdonTownshipv.Schempp(1963):• JusticesarguedFirstAmendment'sseparationofchurchandstatemeantpublicschoolscouldnotrequireprayerorBiblereading

• Socialconservativesraisedanewbattlecry“ImpeachEarlWarren” (seeChap.36)

– From1954,Courtcameunderrelentlesscriticism,bitterestsinceNewDealdays• Grappledwithproblemslegislaturesfailedtoaddress

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• Fulfilling campaignpromise, Nixon tried tochangeCourt's philosophical complexion:

• Soughtappointeeswhowould:– Strictly interpret Constitution– Cease “meddling” in social and political questions– Notcoddle radicals orcriminals

• AppointedWarrenE.BurgertosucceedEarlWarren• Beforeendof1971,NixonhadappointedfourconservativestoCourt


• Nixon learned that onceseated, justicesdecide according to conscience, notaccordingtopresident's expectations

• Burger Court provedreluctant todismantle“liberal” rulings ofWarren Court– ControversialandmomentousRoev.Wade(1973)whichlegalizedabortion(seeChap.38)

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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront

• Oversawbigexpansion ofwelfare programsthatconservative Republicans denounced:

• IncreasedappropriationsforFoodStamps,Medicaid,andAidtoFamilieswithDependentChildren(AFDC)

• Addednewprogram:SupplementalSecurityIncome(SSI)toassistindigent,aged,blind,anddisabled

• AutomaticSocialSecuritycost-of-livingincreases• Implementedso-calledPhiladelphiaPlan (1969):

– Required trade unions toestablish “goals and time-tables”forhiring blackapprentices

XIV.NixonontheHomeFront(cont.)

• Philadelphia Plan:• Required1,000sofemployerstomeethiringquotasorestablish“set-asides” forminoritysubcontractors

• Alteredmeaningof“affirmativeaction”– Fromprotect individuals against discrimination– Toprogram thatconferred privileges oncertain groups

• SupremeCourtwentalongwithNixon'sapproach– Griggs v.DukePower Co.(1971): Court banned intelligencetests orother devices thathad effectofexcluding minoritiesorwomen fromcertain jobs


• Onlysureprotectionagainstchargeofdiscriminationwastohireminoritiesoradmitminoritystudents

– Inproportion to their presence inpopulation

• NixonandCourtopenednewemploymentandeducationalopportunitiesforminoritiesandwomen

• Criticsprotestedchangesas“reversediscrimination”– AnotherNixonlegacy:

• 1970creationofEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)• RachelCarson'sSilentSpring(1962)exposedpoisonouseffectsofpesticides

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• April22,1970,millionsaroundworldcelebratedfirstEarthDay:

– Toraise awareness and toencourage leaders toact– Congress passed Clean Air Act (1970)and Endangered SpeciesAct (1973)

– EPAmadeprogress in reducing automobile emissions andcleaning upbefouled waterways and toxicwaste sites

• Federalgovernmentexpandedregulatoryreachonbehalfofworkersandconsumers

– 1970Nixon signed Occupational SafetyandHealthAdministration (OSHA) into law


– Created agencydedicated toimproving working conditions» Prevent work-related accidents anddeath» Issue safety standards

• ConsumerProductSafetyCommission(CPSC):– Heldcompanies accountable for selling dangerous products

• Businesscriticsdecried“nannystate”• 1971:Nixonimposed90-daywageandpricefreeze• HethentookU.S.A.offgoldstandardanddevalueddollar

– Twoactions ended “Bretton Woods” system ofinternationalcurrencystabilization thathad functioned sinceend ofWWII(seeChap. 35)

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– Devisedplan—calledsouthernstrategy—togainreelection in1972

– Appointed conservative Supreme Court justices– Soft-pedaled civil rights– Opposed school busing toachieve racialbalance

– Goal:convertdisillusionedwhitesouthernDemocratstoRepublicans

– Set inmotionsweepingpoliticalrealignmentthateventuallytransformedpartysystem

XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972

• Fouryearssince Nixon promised toendVietnamwarand“win” peace

• 1972:whenNorthVietnamburstthroughdemilitarizedzoneseparatingtwoVietnams,Nixonlaunchedmassivebombingattacks

• ContinuingVietnamconflictspurredriseofSouthDakotasenatorGeorgeMcGovernto1972Democraticnomination

• Helpedbychangesinnominationsystemthatincreasedimportanceofprimaryelections

– Newsystem emphasized media politicking andactivist base

XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972(cont.)

• McGovern usednewpopulist process– PromisedtopullremainingtroopsoutofVietnaminninetydays:• Earnedhimbackingoflargeantiwarelementinparty• Hisappealtoracialminorities,feminists,leftists,andyouthalienatedtraditionalworking-classDemocrats

• Nixon emphasized hehadwound down“Democratic war” inVietnam– From540,000toabout30,000troops

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XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972(cont.)

• HiscandidacyreceivedaddedboosttwelvedaysbeforeelectionwhenKissingerannounced

– “Peace isathand” andanagreement would be reached inafewdays

• Nixonwonlandslide:– Won everystate exceptMassachusetts andnonstate DistrictofColumbia (seeAppendix)

– Received 520electoral votes to17 forMcGovern– Popular majority of47,169,911 to29,170,383 votes

• McGoverncountedonyoungvote,butlessthanhalf18-20agegroupevenbotheredtoregistertovote

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XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct

– Doveofpeace“athand” justbeforeballoting,tookflightafterelection:• Nixonlaunchedfurioustwo-weekbombing• NorthVietnamagreedtocease-fireinTreatyofParis(Jan.23,1973)nearlythreemonthsafterpeaceprematurelyproclaimed

• Nixonhailedcease-fireas“peacewithhonor,”butboastranghallowas“peace” littlemorethanU.S.retreat

– United Stateswould withdraw its remaining 27,000 troops andreclaim 560American prisoners ofwar

– North Vietnam allowed tokeep145,000 troops in SouthVietnam

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XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct(cont.)

• Constitutionality ofU.S.warinCambodia:– July1973:publiclearnedAirForcehadsecretlybombedCambodia3,500timessinceMar.1969• Whileforaysgoingon,U.S.officials,includingNixon,hadswornCambodianneutralitybeingrespected

• Defiancefollowedsecretiveness:– Nixoncontinued bombing Cambodia evenafterVietnamcease-fire

– Repeatedly vetoedcongressional efforts tostop bombing


– YearsofbombingwoundedCambodia:• Blasteditspeople• Shreddeditseconomy• Revolutionizeditspolitics

– CambodianssufferedsadisticheelofPolPot:• Twomilliondied• Potforcedfromofficeby1978Vietnameseinvasion


• 1973 WarPowersAct overNixon's veto:• RequiredpresidentreporttoCongresswithin48hoursaftercommittingtroopstoforeignconflictor“substantially”enlargingcombatunitsabroad

• Suchalimitedauthorizationwouldendwithin60daysunlessextendedbyCongressfor30days

• Actmanifestationof“NewIsolationism,”moodofcautionandrestraintabroad

• DraftendedinJanuary1973– Future members ofarmed forceswould bevolunteers

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XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis

• YomKippur Warerupted October 1973• SyriaandEgyptattackedIsraeltoregainlandlostduringSix-DayWar(1967)

• KissingerflewtoMoscowtorestrainSoviets,whowerearmingattackers

• Nixonplacednuclearforcesonalertandorderedairliftof$2billioninwarmaterialstoIsrael

• IsraelisturnedtideandthreatenedCairobeforeU.S.A.brokereduneasycease-fire

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XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis (cont.)

– U.S.policyofbackingIsraelagainstitsoil-richneighborsexactedheavypenalty:• Oct.1973,OPECannouncedoilembargotoU.S.A.andthoseEuropeanalliessupportingIsrael

• Oil-richArabstatesalsocutoilproduction• Oilshortagetriggeredmajoreconomicrecession,notonlyinUnitedStates,butalsoFranceandBritain

• Inincreasinglyglobalized,interconnectedworld,allnationsfeltcrunchof“energycrisis”

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XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis (cont.)

– Fivemonthsofembargoendederaofcheapandabundantenergy

– Since1948,U.S.A.hadbeennetoilimporter• U.S.oilproductionpeakedin1970,thandeclined• YetAmericanstripledtheiroilusagesinceWWII• Automobilesincreased250%between1949and1972• By1974,Americaoil-addictedandvulnerabletoanyinterruptioninsupplies

• MiddleEastattainednewimportancetoU.S.interests

IVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis (cont.)

• OPECquadrupled price forcrude oil afterlifting embargo in1974– Results:

• HugeoilbillsdisruptedU.S.balanceofinternationaltradeandfurtherfueledragingfireofinflation

• U.S.tookleadtoformInternationalEnergyAgencyin1974ascounterweighttoOPEC

• VarioussectorsofU.S.economy,includingautos,begantoadjusttodawningageofenergydependency

• E.g.,nationalspeedlimit(55)toconservefuel

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