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![Page 1: Chapter 32 An Introduction to Animal Diversity. Modes of Nutrition Animals differ in their mode of nutrition than plants and fungi. –Animals and fungi.](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022061603/56649eca5503460f94bd9172/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Chapter 32
An Introduction to Animal Diversity
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Modes of Nutrition
• Animals differ in their mode of nutrition than plants and fungi.– Animals and fungi are heterotrophic.– Plants are autotrophic.– Fungi release exoenzymes.
• Animals ingest their food.– They release enzymes to break down
their food.
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Animal Cells
• Animal cells lack cell walls.• Fungi have them--• Plants have them--• The structural integrity of animal
bodies is due to proteins--collagen.– Tight junctions, gap junctions, and
desmosomes.
• Muscle cells and nerve cells are also found in animals.
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Animal Reproduction
• Animals reproduce mostly via sexual reproduction.– Life cycle dominated by the diploid
stage.
• Usually a small, haploid, flagellated sperm fertilizes a non-motile egg forming a diploid zygote.
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Cell Division
• Cell Division is known as cleavage
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Changes in the Zygote
• After fertilization, the zygote undergoes cleavage.
• Successive mitotic divisions with no cell growth.
• This division leads to the formation of the blastula.
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The Blastula
• Is a hollow ball of animal cells.• The blastula then becomes the
gastrula.
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The Gastrula
• The gastrula is the stage that gives rise to embryonic tissues.
• The embryonic tissues eventually develop into adult body parts.
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Stages of Development
• Some animals go through transient stages of development.– Many of them go through at least 1
larval stage.
• A larva is a sexually immature form of an animal that is morphologically distinct from the adult.– Frogs and flies are examples.
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Stages of Development
• Recall the importance of the homeobox genes.– Hox genes control the segmentation pattern in
animals.
• They are the result of many successive gene duplications throughout evolution.
• They play important roles in the development and differentiation of animals.
• They produce many of the observed morphological features.
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Body Plans
• Body plans are morphological traits or organizational plans that are shared by a group of animal species.
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Symmetry
• Some animals have symmetry, others don’t.
• Radial symmetry--top and bottom, but no front and back.
• Bilateral symmetry--top and bottom, front and back.
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Tissues
• The body plans of animals also varies according to tissue organization.
• Tissues are collections of specialized cells separated from other tissues by membranous layers.
• Tissues form after gastrulation has taken place.
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Tissues
• Development gives rise to germ layers which form the various tissues and organs of the body.– Ectoderm--outer portion of body--skin.– Endoderm--innermost layer. Lines the
developing digestive tube. The lining of the digestive tract and organs derived from it.
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Germ Layers
• Ectoderm and endoderm are the previously mentioned germ layers.
• Animals with just these two are called diploblasts.– Sponges and Coelenterates
• Animals that have a third germ layer, the mesoderm, are called triploblasts.– Mesoderm forms the muscles and most other
organs between the digestive tube and the outside of the animal.
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Body Cavities
• Some triploblasts have a body cavity filled with fluid.– Called a coelom; derived from
mesoderm.
• It separates the digestive tract from the outer body wall.– Animals with a coelom are called
coelomates.
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Body Cavities
• Some triploblasts form a body cavity from the blastocoel rather than the mesoderm.– This cavity is functional and is called a
pseudocoelom.– These animals are called
pseudocoelomates.
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Body Cavities
• Some triploblasts lack a coelom altogether.– There is no body cavity between the
digestive tract and the outer body wall.– These are called acoelomates.
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Protostomes and Deuterostomes
• Many animals can be classified as either protostomes or deuterostomes.
• Three features distinguish their development:– 1. Cleavage– 2. Coelom Formation– 3. Fate of the Blastopore
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Cleavage• Many protostomes have spiral cleavage.• Cleavage diagonal to the vertical axis of the
embryo.• The 8-cell stage has smaller cells which lie in the
grooves between the larger underlying cells.
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Cleavage• This so-called determinant cleavage
of some animals determines the developmental fate of each embryonic cell very early.
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Cleavage
• Radial cleavage is common in deuterostomes.
• You either see cleavage planes parallel or perpendicular to the vertical axis of the embryo.
• Here, the tiers of the cells are aligned.
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Cleavage
• Most deuterostomes have indeterminant cleavage.
• This means that each cell in the embryo can fully develop into a complete embryo.– This makes identical twins possible.– This is why 4-cell stage sea stars can be divided
to give 4 larvae.– This is why embryonic stem cells have the
capacity to perform so many functions.
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Deuterostomes• Have radial cleavage• Their archenteron gives rise to the coelom• The mouth arises from the end of the
embryo opposite the blastopore.• (The blastopore becomes the anus)
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The Archenteron• This is the endoderm-lined cavity
that forms during animal development (gastrulation) and gives rise to the digestive tract.
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Coelom Formation
• In protostome development, as the archenteron forms during gastrulation, the mesoderm splits forming a coelomic cavity.
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Coelom Formation
• During deuterostome development, the mesoderm buds off of the wall of the archenteron.
• This cavity becomes the coelom.
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Fate of the Blastopore
• This is the fundamental characteristic that distinguishes protostome and deuterostome development.
• The blastopore is the indentation that leads to the formation of the archenteron.
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Protostomes
• After the archenteron develops, a second opening forms at the opposite end of the gastrula.
• Now there are two openings.
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Protostomes
• In protostomes, the mouth develops from the first opening--the blastopore.
• The anus develops from the second opening.
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Deuterostomes
• In deuterostomes, the mouth develops from the second opening.
• The blastopore (first opening) becomes the anus.
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