Chapter 31 Plant Structure, Growth, and Reproduction · 2015. 6. 8. · –Terminal buds are at the...
Transcript of Chapter 31 Plant Structure, Growth, and Reproduction · 2015. 6. 8. · –Terminal buds are at the...
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko
PowerPoint Lectures for
Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition
Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey
Chapter 31 Plant Structure, Growth,
and Reproduction
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Introduction
Some plants, such as coast redwoods, are among
the largest and oldest organisms on Earth.
Coast redwoods are gymnosperms, a kind of plant
that bears seeds on cones.
Angiosperms, or flowering plants, bear seeds in
fruits.
Most plants are angiosperms, which will be the focus
of this unit on plant structure.
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Figure 31.0_1
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Figure 31.0_2
Chapter 31: Big Ideas
Plant Growth Plant Structure
and Function
Reproduction of
Flowering Plants
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Figure 31.0_3
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PLANT STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION
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31.1 CONNECTION: People have manipulated plants since prehistoric times
Humans have engaged in agriculture for about
10,000 years.
Genetic manipulation of crop plants such as wheat
began with cross-pollination of plants with desirable
traits.
Today many crop plants are genetically modified
using DNA technology.
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Figure 31.1
Turkey
Egypt
Sudan
Saudi Arabia
Iraq Iran
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31.2 The two major groups of angiosperms are the monocots and the eudicots
Monocots and eudicots differ in
– number of cotyledons (seed leaves),
– pattern of leaf venation,
– arrangement of stem vascular tissue,
– number of flower parts, and
– root structure.
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Monocots, such as wheat and corn, have
– one cotyledon,
– parallel leaf venation,
– scattered vascular bundles,
– flower parts in threes or multiples of three, and
– fibrous roots.
31.2 The two major groups of angiosperms are the monocots and the eudicots
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Eudicots, which are most plants are, have
– two cotyledons,
– branched leaf venation,
– a ring of vascular bundles,
– flower parts in fours or fives (or multiples), and
– a taproot system.
31.2 The two major groups of angiosperms are the monocots and the eudicots
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Figure 31.2
Seed leaves Leaf veins Stems Flowers Roots
MO
NO
CO
TS
E
UD
ICO
TS
One
cotyledon Veins usually
parallel
Vascular bundles
in complex
arrangement
Floral parts
usually in
multiples of three
Fibrous
root system
Two
cotyledons Veins usually
branched
Vascular bundles
arranged in ring
Floral parts
usually in multiples
of four or five
Taproot
usually present
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Figure 31.2_1 Seed leaves Leaf veins Stems
MO
NO
CO
TS
E
UD
ICO
TS
One cotyledon Veins usually
parallel
Vascular bundles in complex
arrangement
Two cotyledons Veins usually
branched
Vascular bundles arranged in ring
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Figure 31.2_2
MO
NO
CO
TS
E
UD
ICO
TS
Flowers Roots
Floral parts
usually in
multiples of three
Fibrous
root system
Floral parts
usually in multiples
of four or five
Taproot
usually present
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31.3 A typical plant body contains three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves
Plant organs consist of several types of tissues that
together carry out particular functions.
Plants use a root system to
– anchor the plant in the soil,
– absorb and transport water and minerals, and
– store food.
– Root hairs
– are tiny tubular projections off of roots that
– greatly increase the surface area for absorption.
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31.3 A typical plant body contains three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves
Plants use a shoot system to absorb the sun’s
energy and carbon dioxide from the air.
A shoot system consists of
– stems,
– leaves, and
– adaptations for reproduction.
A stem has
– nodes, the points at which leaves are attached, and
– internodes, the portions of the stem between nodes.
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Plants typically have two kinds of buds.
– Terminal buds are at the apex of stems, with developing
leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes.
– Axillary buds are found in the angles formed by the leaf
and the stem.
In many plants, the terminal bud produces hormones
that inhibit growth of the axillary buds in a
phenomenon called apical dominance.
31.3 A typical plant body contains three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves
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Plant root and shoot systems are interdependent.
– Plant roots depend on shoots for carbohydrates
produced via photosynthesis.
– Plant shoots depend on roots for water and minerals.
31.3 A typical plant body contains three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves
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Figure 31.3
Terminal bud
Shoot system
Root system
Leaf Blade
Petiole
Axillary bud
Stem
Taproot
Flower
Node
Internode
Epidermal cell
Root hair
Root hairs
Root hairs
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Figure 31.3_1
Root hairs
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31.4 Many plants have modified roots, stems, and leaves
Modifications of plant parts are adaptations for
various functions, including
– food or water storage,
– asexual reproduction,
– protection,
– climbing, and
– photosynthesis.
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Figure 31.4A
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Stems may be modified as
– stolons, for asexual reproduction,
– tubers, for storage and asexual reproduction,
– rhizomes, for storage and asexual reproduction, or
– cactus stems, for water storage and photosynthesis.
31.4 Many plants have modified roots, stems, and leaves
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Figure 31.4B
Strawberry plant Stolon (runner) Potato plant
Iris plant
Rhizome
Rhizome
Tuber
Taproot
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Figure 31.4B_1
Strawberry plant Stolon (runner)
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Figure 31.4B_2
Iris plant
Rhizome
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Figure 31.4B_3
Potato plant
Rhizome
Tuber
Taproot
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Leaves may be modified for
– climbing, such as a pea plant tendril, or
– protection, such as a cactus spine.
31.4 Many plants have modified roots, stems, and leaves
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Figure 31.4C
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Figure 31.4C_1
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Figure 31.4C_2
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31.5 Three tissue systems make up the plant body
The organs of plants contain tissues, which are a
group of cells that together perform a specialized
function. For example
– xylem tissue contains water-conducting cells that convey
water and dissolved minerals upward from roots and
– phloem tissue contains cells that transport sugars and
other organic nutrients from leaves or storage tissues to
other parts of the plant.
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Figure 31.5
Dermal tissue system
Ground tissue system
Vascular tissue system Endodermis
Cortex
Epidermis
Central core of cells
Vascular cylinder
Phloem
Xylem
Monocot root Eudicot root
Phloem
Xylem Vascular cylinder
Endodermis
Cortex
Epidermis
Epidermis Epidermis
Pith
Cortex
Vascular bundle
Vascular bundle
Eudicot stem Monocot stem
Sheath
Stoma
Guard cells
Vein Phloem
Xylem
Eudicot leaf Cuticle
Upper epidermis
Lower epidermis
Mesophyll
Key
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31.5 Three tissue systems make up the plant body
Each plant organ (root, stem, or leaf) has three types
of tissues.
1. Dermal tissue provides a protective outer covering.
2. Vascular tissue provides support and long-distance
transport.
3. Ground tissue composes the bulk of the plant body and
is involved in
– food production,
– storage, and
– support.
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31.5 Three tissue systems make up the plant body
Dermal tissues form
– a layer of tightly packed cells called the epidermis,
– the first line of defense against damage and infection, and
– a waxy layer called the cuticle, which reduces water loss.
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31.5 Three tissue systems make up the plant body
Vascular tissue
– is composed of xylem and phloem and
– arranged in
– a vascular cylinder in a root or
– vascular bundles in stems.
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Figure 31.5_2
Dermal tissue system
Ground tissue system
Vascular tissue system
Key
Epidermis Epidermis
Pith
Cortex
Vascular bundle
Vascular bundle
Eudicot stem Monocot stem
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Figure 31.5_3
Dermal tissue system
Ground tissue system
Vascular tissue system
Key
Endodermis
Cortex
Epidermis
Central core of cells
Vascular cylinder
Phloem
Xylem Monocot root Eudicot root
Phloem Xylem Vascular
cylinder
Endodermis
Cortex
Epidermis
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31.5 Three tissue systems make up the plant body
Ground tissues lie between dermal and vascular
tissue.
– Eudicot stem ground tissue is divided into pith and
cortex.
– Leaf ground tissue is called mesophyll.
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31.5 Three tissue systems make up the plant body
In a leaf, the epidermis is interrupted by tiny pores
called stomata, which allow exchange of CO2 and
O2 between
– the surrounding air and
– the photosynthetic cells inside the leaf.
– Each stoma is flanked by two guard cells that regulate
the opening and closing of the stoma.
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Figure 31.5_1
Dermal tissue system
Ground tissue system
Vascular tissue system
Key
Sheath
Stoma
Guard cells
Vein Phloem
Xylem
Eudicot leaf Cuticle
Upper epidermis
Lower epidermis
Mesophyll
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31.6 Plant cells are diverse in structure and function
Plant cells have three structures that distinguish
them from animal cells:
1. chloroplasts, the site of photosynthesis,
2. a central vacuole containing fluid that helps maintain cell
turgor (firmness), and
3. a protective cell wall composed of cellulose.
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31.6 Plant cells are diverse in structure and function
Plant cell walls
– Some plant cell walls have two layers.
1. A primary cell wall forms the outermost layer.
2. A secondary cell wall forms a tough layer inside the primary wall.
– A sticky layer called the middle lamella lies between adjacent plant cells.
– Openings in cell walls called plasmodesmata allow cells to communicate and exchange materials easily.
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Figure 31.6A
Nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondrion
Golgi apparatus
Ribosomes
Microtubules
Plasma membrane
Chloroplast Central vacuole Cell walls
Primary cell wall
Secondary cell wall
Middle lamella
Cell walls of adjoining cells
Plasma membrane
Pit
Plasmodesmata
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Plant cell structure is related to function.
There are five major types of plant cells with different functions:
1. parenchyma cells,
2. collenchyma cells,
3. sclerenchyma cells,
4. water-conducting cells, and
5. food-conducting cells
31.6 Plant cells are diverse in structure and function
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31.6 Plant cells are diverse in structure and function
Parenchyma cells
– are the most abundant type of cell in most plants,
– usually have only a thin and flexible primary cell wall,
– perform most of the metabolic functions of a plant, and
– can divide and differentiate into other types of plant cells
under certain conditions.
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Figure 31.6B
Starch-storing vesicles
Pit
Primary cell wall (thin)
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Figure 31.6B_1
Starch-storing vesicles
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Collenchyma cells
– lack a secondary cell wall,
– have an unevenly thickened primary cell wall, and
– provide flexible support in actively growing parts of the
plant.
31.6 Plant cells are diverse in structure and function
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Figure 31.6C
Primary cell wall (thick)
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Figure 31.6C_1
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Sclerenchyma cells
– have a thick secondary cell wall usually strengthened
with lignin, the main chemical component of wood, and
– cannot elongate at maturity and are therefore found
only in regions of the plant that have stopped growing
in length.
– When mature, most sclerenchyma cells are dead, their
cell walls forming a rigid “skeleton” that supports the
plant.
31.6 Plant cells are diverse in structure and function
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Two types of sclerenchyma cells are
1. fibers, long and slender cells usually arranged in
bundles, and
2. sclereids, shorter than fibers, have thick, irregular and
very hard secondary cell walls that impart the hardness
present in nut shells and pear tissue.
31.6 Plant cells are diverse in structure and function
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Figure 31.6D
Secondary cell wall
Fiber cells
Primary cell wall
Pits
Fiber
Secondary cell wall
Primary cell wall
Pits
Sclereid
Sclereid cells
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Figure 31.6D_1
Secondary cell wall
Fiber cells
Primary cell wall
Pits
Fiber
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Figure 31.6D_2
Fiber cells
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Figure 31.6D_3
Secondary cell wall
Primary cell wall
Pits
Sclereid
Sclereid cells
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Figure 31.6D_4
Sclereid cells
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Xylem tissue of angiosperms includes two types of
water-conducting cells, tracheids and vessel
elements. Both cell types
– have rigid, lignin-containing secondary cell walls,
– are dead at maturity, and
– form chains with overlapping ends that create tubes
within vascular tissue.
31.6 Plant cells are diverse in structure and function
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Figure 31.6E
Openings in end wall
Pits
Vessel element Tracheids
Pits
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Figure 31.6E_1
Vessel element Tracheids
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Food-conducting cells known as sieve-tube
elements (or members)
– remain alive at maturity but lack most organelles and
– have end walls, called sieve plates, with pores that allow
fluid to flow from cell to cell along the sieve tube.
Alongside each sieve-tube element is at least one
companion cell, which is connected to surrounding
sieve-tube elements by numerous plasmodesmata.
Companion cells produce and transport proteins to
sieve-tube elements.
31.6 Plant cells are diverse in structure and function
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Figure 31.6F
Sieve-tube element
Sieve plate
Companion cell
Primary cell wall
Cytoplasm
15 m
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Figure 31.6F_1
Sieve plate
15 m
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PLANT GROWTH
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31.7 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots
Animal growth is determinate, stopping after a
certain size is reached.
Plant growth is indeterminate, continuing throughout a plant’s life.
Plants are categorized based on how long they live.
– Annuals complete their life cycle in one year.
– Biennials complete their life cycle in two years.
– Perennials live for many years.
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31.7 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots
Plant growth occurs in specialized tissues called
meristems, consisting of undifferentiated cells that
divide when conditions permit.
Apical meristems are found at the tips of roots and
shoots.
Primary growth
– occurs at apical meristems,
– allows roots to push downward through the soil, and
– allows shoots to grow upward toward the sun.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Video: Root Growth in a Radish Seed (time lapse)
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Figure 31.7A
Terminal bud
Axillary buds
Root tips Arrows direction of growth
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31.7 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots
The apical meristems of root tips are covered by a root cap.
Root growth occurs behind the root cap in three zones.
1. Zone of cell division includes the apical meristem and cells derived from it.
2. Zone of cell elongation, where cells lengthen by as much as 10 times.
3. Zone of differentiation, where cells differentiate into dermal, vascular, and ground tissues, including the formation of primary xylem and primary phloem.
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Figure 31.7B Vascular cylinder
Root hair
Cellulose fibers
Root cap
Cortex
Epidermis
Zone of differentiation
Zone of elongation
Zone of cell division (including apical meristem)
Key
Dermal tissue system
Ground tissue system
Vascular tissue system
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Figure 31.7B_1
Key
Dermal tissue system
Ground tissue system
Vascular tissue system
Vascular cylinder
Root hair
Cortex
Epidermis
Zone of differentiation
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Figure 31.7B_2
Key
Dermal tissue system
Ground tissue system
Vascular tissue system
Cellulose fibers
Root cap
Zone of elongation
Zone of cell division (including apical meristem)
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Figure 31.7B_3
Root cap
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Figure 31.7C
Apical meristem
Leaves
Axillary bud meristems
Apical meristem
Growth
2
1
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Figure 31.7C_1
Apical meristem
Leaves
Axillary bud meristems
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Figure 31.7C_2
Apical meristem
Growth
2
1
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31.8 Secondary growth increases the diameter of woody plants
Secondary growth
– is an increase in thickness of stems and roots and
– occurs at lateral meristems.
Lateral meristems are areas of active cell division
that exist in two cylinders that extend along the
length of roots and shoots.
1. Vascular cambium is a lateral meristem that lies
between primary xylem and primary phloem.
2. Cork cambium is a lateral meristem that lies at the
outer edge of the stem cortex.
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31.8 Secondary growth increases the diameter of woody plants
Vascular cambium produces cells in two directions.
1. Secondary xylem produces wood toward the interior of
the stem.
2. Secondary phloem produces the inner bark toward the
exterior of the stem.
Cork cambium produces
– cells in one direction,
– the outer bark, which is composed of cork cells.
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Figure 31.8A
Vascular tissue system
Ground tissue system
Dermal tissue system
Key
Secondary xylem (2 years’ growth)
Year 2 Late Summer
Bark
Cork
Cork cambium
Secondary phloem
Shed epidermis
Vascular cambium
Secondary xylem (wood)
Year 1 Late Summer
Year 1 Early Spring
Primary xylem
Vascular cambium
Primary phloem
Cortex
Epidermis
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Figure 31.8A_1
Vascular tissue system
Ground tissue system
Dermal tissue system
Key Year 1
Early Spring
Primary xylem
Vascular cambium
Primary phloem
Cortex
Epidermis
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Figure 31.8A_2
Vascular tissue system
Ground tissue system
Dermal tissue system
Key
Bark
Cork
Cork cambium
Secondary phloem
Shed epidermis
Vascular cambium
Secondary xylem (wood)
Year 1 Late Summer
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Figure 31.8A_3
Vascular tissue system
Ground tissue system
Dermal tissue system
Key
Secondary xylem (2 years’ growth)
Year 2 Late Summer
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31.8 Secondary growth increases the diameter of woody plants
Wood annual rings show layers of secondary xylem.
– In temperate regions, periods of dormancy stop growth of
secondary xylem.
– Rings occur in areas when new growth starts each year.
The bark (secondary phloem and cork) is sloughed
off over time.
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31.8 Secondary growth increases the diameter of woody plants
Wood rays
– consist of parenchyma cells that radiate from the stem’s
center and
– function in
– lateral transport of water and nutrients,
– storage of starch, and
– wound repair.
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31.8 Secondary growth increases the diameter of woody plants
Most transport occurs near the vascular cambium.
– Sapwood near the vascular cambium conducts xylem
sap.
– Heartwood consists of older layers of secondary xylem
that no longer transports water and instead stores resins
and wastes.
– Secondary phloem near the vascular cambium transports
sugars.
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Figure 31.8B
Wood rays
Rings
Heartwood
Sapwood
Vascular cambium
Bark
Secondary phloem
Cork cambium
Cork
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Figure 31.8C
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REPRODUCTION OF
FLOWERING PLANTS
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31.9 The flower is the organ of sexual reproduction in angiosperms
Flowers typically contain four types of highly
modified leaves called floral organs.
1. Sepals enclose and protect a flower bud.
2. Petals are showy and attract pollinators.
3. Stamens are male reproductive structures.
4. Carpels are female reproductive structures.
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A stamen has two parts.
1. An anther produces pollen, which house cells that develop into sperm.
2. A stalk (filament) elevates the anther.
A carpel has three parts.
1. The stigma is the landing platform for pollen.
2. The ovary houses one or more ovules, in which each ovule contains a developing egg and supporting cells.
3. A slender neck (style) leads to an ovary.
31.9 The flower is the organ of sexual reproduction in angiosperms
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Video: Flower Blooming (time lapse)
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Figure 31.9A
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Figure 31.9B
Stamen Anther
Filament
Petal
Ovule
Sepal
Carpel Stigma
Style
Ovary
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31.9 The flower is the organ of sexual reproduction in angiosperms
The term pistil is sometimes used to refer to a
single carpel or a group of fused carpels.
In the life cycle of a generalized angiosperm,
– fertilization occurs in an ovule,
– the ovary develops into a fruit,
– the ovule develops into the seed containing the embryo,
– the seed germinates in a suitable habitat, and
– the embryo develops into a seedling and then mature
plant.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Video: Flowering Plant Life (time lapse)
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Figure 31.9C_s1
Ovary, containing ovule
Mature plant with flowers, where fertilization occurs
1
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Figure 31.9C_s2
Ovary, containing ovule
Mature plant with flowers, where fertilization occurs
Fruit (mature ovary), containing seed
2
1
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Figure 31.9C_s3
Ovary, containing ovule
Mature plant with flowers, where fertilization occurs
Fruit (mature ovary), containing seed
Embryo
Seed
2
1
3
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Figure 31.9C_s4
Ovary, containing ovule
Mature plant with flowers, where fertilization occurs
Fruit (mature ovary), containing seed
Embryo
Germinating seed
Seed
2
1
3
4
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Figure 31.9C_s5
2
1
3
4
5
Ovary, containing ovule
Mature plant with flowers, where fertilization occurs
Fruit (mature ovary), containing seed
Embryo
Seed
Seedling
Germinating seed
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31.10 The development of pollen and ovules culminates in fertilization
Plant life cycles involve alternating diploid (2n) and haploid (n) generations.
– The diploid generation is called the sporophyte.
– Specialized diploid cells in anthers and ovules undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores.
– The haploid spores undergo mitosis and produce the haploid generation.
– The haploid generation is called the gametophyte, which produces gametes via mitosis.
– At fertilization, gametes from male and female gametophytes unite to produce a diploid zygote.
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Pollen grains are the male gametophytes.
– A cell in the anther undergoes meiosis to produce four
haploid spores.
– Each spore then divides via mitosis to produce two cells:
1. the tube cell and
2. generative cell.
– A tough wall forms around the cells to produce a pollen
grain.
– Pollen grains are released from the anther.
31.10 The development of pollen and ovules culminates in fertilization
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The female gametophyte is an embryo sac.
– A cell in the ovule undergoes meiosis to produce four
haploid spores.
– Three of the spores degenerate.
– The surviving spore undergoes a series of mitotic
divisions to produce the embryo sac.
– One cell within the embryo sac is a haploid egg ready to
be fertilized.
– One central cell within the embryo sac has two nuclei and
will produce endosperm.
31.10 The development of pollen and ovules culminates in fertilization
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31.10 The development of pollen and ovules culminates in fertilization
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from anther to
stigma.
Pollen may be carried by wind, water, and animals.
As a pollen grain germinates,
– the tube cell gives rise to the pollen tube, which grows
downward into the ovary, and
– the generative cell divides by mitosis, producing two
sperm.
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31.10 The development of pollen and ovules culminates in fertilization
At fertilization,
– one sperm fertilizes the haploid egg to produce a diploid
zygote, and
– another sperm fuses with the diploid central cell nucleus
to produce a triploid (3n) cell that will give rise to the
endosperm, which nourishes the developing embryo.
This formation of a diploid zygote and a triploid
nucleus is called double fertilization.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Video: Bat Pollinating Agave Plant
Video: Bee Pollinating Animation: Plant Fertilization
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Figure 31.10 Development of male
gametophyte
(pollen grain)
Development of female
gametophyte
(embryo sac)
Anther
Cell within
anther
Ovary
Ovule
Meiosis
Meiosis Surviving
cell (haploid
spore) Four haploid
spores
Single
spore
Wall
Mitosis
(of each spore)
Generative cell
Pollination
Pollen grain
released
from anther
Nucleus of
tube cell
Germinated
pollen grain
on stigma Mitosis
Embryo
sac
Egg cell
Two sperm
in pollen
tube
Pollen
tube
enters
embryo sac
Double
fertilization
occurs
Two sperm
discharged
Triploid (3n)
endosperm
nucleus
Diploid (2n)
zygote
(egg plus
sperm)
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Figure 31.10_1
Development of male gametophyte (pollen grain)
Development of female gametophyte (embryo sac)
Anther
Cell within anther
Ovary
Ovule
Meiosis
Meiosis Surviving cell (haploid spore)
Four haploid spores
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Figure 31.10_2
Development of male gametophyte (pollen grain)
Development of female gametophyte (embryo sac)
Surviving cell (haploid spore)
Four haploid spores
Single spore
Wall
Mitosis (of each spore)
Generative cell
Pollination
Pollen grain released from anther
Nucleus of tube cell
Germinated pollen grain on stigma
Mitosis
Embryo sac
Egg cell
Two sperm in pollen tube
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Figure 31.10_3
Pollen tube enters embryo sac
Double fertilization occurs
Two sperm discharged
Triploid (3n) endosperm nucleus
Diploid (2n) zygote (egg plus sperm)
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31.11 The ovule develops into a seed
After fertilization, the ovule, containing the triploid
central cell and the diploid zygote, begins developing
into a seed.
The seed stockpiles proteins, oils, and starches.
The zygote first divides by mitosis to produce two
cells.
– One cell becomes the embryo.
– The other cell divides to form a thread of cells that pushes
the embryo into the endosperm.
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31.11 The ovule develops into a seed
The result of embryonic development in the ovule
is a mature seed, including
– an endosperm,
– one or two cotyledons,
– a root,
– a shoot, and
– a tough seed coat.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Animation: Seed Development
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31.11 The ovule develops into a seed
Seed dormancy
– is a period when embryonic growth and development
are suspended and
– allows for germination when conditions are favorable.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 31.11A
Triploid cell
Ovule
Zygote
Two cells
Embryo
Endosperm
Shoot
Root Seed
Seed coat
Cotyledons
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31.11 The ovule develops into a seed
Eudicot seeds have
– two cotyledons,
– apical meristems that lack protective sheaths, and
– no endosperm because the fleshy cotyledons absorbed
the endosperm nutrients as the seed formed.
Monocot seeds have
– a single cotyledon,
– an embryonic root and shoot with protective sheaths, and
– endosperm.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 31.11B
Corn (monocot)
Common bean (eudicot)
Embryonic leaves
Embryonic root
Seed coat
Embryonic shoot
Cotyledons
Cotyledon
Embryonic leaf
Embryonic shoot
Embryonic root
Sheath
Fruit tissue
Seed coat
Endosperm
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31.12 The ovary develops into a fruit
Hormonal changes induced by fertilization trigger the
ovary to develop into a fruit.
Fruits
– house and protect seeds and
– aid in their dispersal.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Animation: Fruit Development
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31.12 The ovary develops into a fruit
After pollination, a pea plant flower
– drops its petals,
– the ovary starts to grow, expanding tremendously, and its
wall thickens, and
– a pod forms, holding the peas, or seeds.
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Figure 31.12A
2
1
3
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Figure 31.12A_1
1
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Figure 31.12A_2
2
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Figure 31.12A_3
3
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Figure 31.12B
Upper part of carpel
Ovule
Ovary wall
Sepal
Seed
Pod
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31.12 The ovary develops into a fruit
Mature fruits may be fleshy or dry.
– Fleshy fruits include oranges, tomatoes, and grapes.
– Dry fruits include beans, nuts, and grains.
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Figure 31.12C
Maple fruits
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31.13 Seed germination continues the life cycle
At germination, a seed
– takes up water and
– resumes growth and development.
In eudicot seedlings
– the embryonic root of a bean emerges first and grows
downward, and
– shoots emerge from the soil with the apical meristem
“hooked” downward to protect it.
In monocot seedlings, the shoots are covered by a
protective sheath and emerge straight from the soil.
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Figure 31.13A
Embryonic root Seed
coat
Embryonic shoot
Cotyledon
Cotyledon
Foliage leaves
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Figure 31.13B
Cotyledon
Foliage leaves
Protective sheath enclosing shoot
Embryonic root
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31.14 Asexual reproduction produces plant clones
Most plants are capable of asexual reproduction,
producing genetically identical offspring (clones).
Asexual reproduction can be advantageous in very
stable environments.
Clones naturally result from
– fragmentation, the separation of a parent plant into parts
that develop into whole plants, such as occurs in a garlic
bulb,
– root sprouts, and
– runners.
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Figure 31.14A
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Figure 31.14B
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Figure 31.14C
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Figure 31.14D
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31.14 Asexual reproduction produces plant clones
Plants are often propagated by taking cuttings,
which can produce roots.
Plants can be cultured on specialized media in
tubes.
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Figure 31.14E
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31.15 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Evolutionary adaptations help some trees to live very long lives
Some plants can survive a very long time.
– Some coast redwoods can be 2,000–3,000 years old.
– The oldest organism on Earth is thought to be a 4,600-
year-old bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) named
Methuselah.
A long life increases evolutionary fitness by
increasing the number of reproductive opportunities.
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31.15 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Evolutionary adaptations help some trees to live very long lives
Several adaptations allow some plants to live much
longer than animals.
– Meristem tissues allow for continued growth and repair
throughout life.
– A decentralized vascular (circulatory) system allows part
of a tree to survive damage and regrow.
– Plants produce defensive compounds that help protect
them.
– Plants have a well-adapted hormonal control system that
coordinates all of these behaviors.
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Figure 31.15
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You should now be able to
1. Explain how the cultivation of wheat has changed
over the past 10,000 years.
2. Compare the structure of monocots and eudicots.
3. Compare the structures and functions of roots,
stems, and leaves.
4. Distinguish between a taproot, stolon, rhizome,
tuber, bulb, petiole, and tendril, and indicate
common examples of each from a vegetable
garden.
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5. Define a tissue system. Describe the three main
types of tissue systems found in young eudicot
roots, stems, and leaves.
6. Describe the three unique structures found in most
plant cells.
7. Describe the structures and functions of the five
major types of plant cells.
8. Distinguish between (a) indeterminate and
determinate growth and (b) annuals, biennials, and
perennials.
You should now be able to
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9. Describe and compare primary and secondary
growth.
10. Describe the parts of a flower and their functions.
11. Describe the processes and events that lead to
double fertilization.
12. Explain how a seed forms. Compare the structures
of eudicot and monocot seeds and explain the
significance of seed dormancy.
You should now be able to
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13. Describe the structure and functions of fruit.
14. Describe and compare germination in bean and
corn plants.
15. Describe four examples of cloning in plants.
16. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of
asexual versus sexual reproduction.
17. Describe plant adaptations that permit very long
lives.
You should now be able to
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 31.UN01
Terminal bud (grows stem)
Flower (reproductive organ)
Stem (supports leaves and flowers)
Axillary bud (produces a branch)
Node
Internode
Blade
Petiole
Leaf (main organ of photosynthesis)
Root hairs (microscopic; increase surface area for absorption)
Shoot system (site of
photosynthesis)
Root system (anchors,
absorbs nutrients,
and stores food)
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Figure 31.UN02
Root apical meristems
Lateral meristems
Axillary bud meristem
Cork cambium
Vascular cambium
Shoot tip (shoot apical meristem and young leaves)
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Figure 31.UN03
Pollen (n)
Ovary
Embryo sac (n)
Fertilization within ovule
Mature plant (2n)
Embryo (2n)
Germinating seed (2n)
Fruit (from ovary)
Seed (from ovule)
Ovule
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Figure 31.UN04
Endosperm nucleus (3n) (2 polar nuclei plus sperm)
Zygote (2n) (egg plus sperm nucleus)