CHAPTER 3 QoS AND SECURITY ISSUES IN MANETshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/36014/3/... ·...
Transcript of CHAPTER 3 QoS AND SECURITY ISSUES IN MANETshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/36014/3/... ·...
53
CHAPTER 3
QoS AND SECURITY ISSUES IN MANET
3.1 QoS IN MANET
In Yi-Sheng Su et al., 2014, the authors considered the problem of joint
Topology Transparent Scheduling (TTS) and Quality of Service (QoS) routing in ad-
hoc networks and presented a joint scheme for the problem. Due to its ability to
guarantee single-hop QoS support, TTS has been chosen as the underlying Medium-
Access-Control (MAC) protocol. Being built on top of TTS, their paper first designs
methods for Bandwidth Estimation and Allocation (BWE and BWA, respectively) to
provide QoS support without the knowledge of slot status information, and then,
estimates and allocated non assigned eligible bandwidth for Best Effort (BE) flows.
With these bandwidth management methods, their paper proposed a QoS routing
protocol for a mixture of QoS and BE flows
In IPv6 based MANETs, the address configuration was done either with a
stateless mechanisms or with the help of server like Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol version 6 (DHCPv6). The DHCPv6 server initially resides on the node which
acts as the Internet Gateway (IGW) in the network and later on, each of the
configured nodes would become a server. The node which enters the network would
request for an IP address and the server distributes a unique IP address and an address
pool. Formerly, the new node identifies the server using a random selection algorithm.
This method faces many QoS issues due to the usage of the random selection
algorithm. The proposed technique in Punitha et al.,2013 addressed the issues using a
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
54
QoS enabled algorithm, which reduces delay in the address acquisition and packet
drops in the network, and thus enhancing the performance of the network.
Ad-hoc networks, as any other network, need to support both real time traffic
and normal data traffic. Multimedia applications demand stringent guarantees on
bandwidth, delay and jitter. In a best effort network, all users obtain the same level of
service depending on the network load. In other words, it cannot support the
sophisticated requirements of multimedia applications. Therefore, new mechanisms
have to be developed to support the desired QoS levels for the modern applications.
QoS provision at the medium access level was particularly important because it has a
direct effect on how and when data was transmitted. Some of these mechanisms were
based on dividing traffic into various traffic classes and assigning different back off
related values for each class. A few others were based on transmitting multiple frames
at a time to reduce the number of contention attempts and others discard frames with
expired deadlines. However many of these mechanisms dictate strict procedures for
assuring the desired QoS of the application. The proposed method in Narasimhan and
Deepa., 2013 was a simpler one based on the application of token rings to wireless
domain. It uses an election algorithm to find who should transmit data next. Unlike
token ring, the proposed system uses a distributed procedure for maintaining the
logical structure of the ring.
Shivashankar et al., 2013 presented a source based power-aware reactive
routing protocol for Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs). It considers the QoS
parameters namely delay, throughput, bandwidth and cost of each link. The QoS
routing in an ad-hoc network was difficult because the network topology may change
constantly and the available state information for routing was inherently imprecise.
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
55
They proposed a new Efficient Power-Aware QoS Routing (QEPAR) protocol and
implemented it on the existing DSR protocol with residual battery power and
bandwidth (data rate), as the QoS requirement metric for ad-hoc networks to provide a
solution for energy consumption.
Achankunju et al.,2013 proposed a secure clustering algorithm using Multi-
Objective Particle Swarm Optimization technique (MOPSO). The algorithm uses
three objective functions based on nodes QoS parameters: trust value, life time and
available bandwidth. The main advantage of MOPSO was that it provides multiple
solutions at a time through optimal Pareto front. The proposed approach was
simulated with MATLAB and NS2.
The consideration of energy consumption in wireless ad-hoc networks
prevents the problem of the network exhausting batteries, thus partitioning the entire
network. Power-aware multicasting was proposed to reduce the power consumption.
An energy-efficient genetic algorithm mechanism was proposed to resolve QoS
multicast routing problem, which was NP-complete. In Ting Lu and Jie Zhu., 2013
authors proposed a genetic algorithm which depends on bounded end-to-end delay
and minimum energy cost of the multicast tree.
In order to support QoS in wireless ad-hoc networks, each node needs to
monitor the network status and determine whether the current network status satisfies
the requirements of an application or not. Since the network requirements on an
intermediate node were usually different from those on the end nodes, there was a
need to convert the application requirement into a hop-by-hop network requirement.
Byoungheon Shin et al., 2013 induced link validation formulas for each node to
determine if a link could satisfy the requirement of a specific application.
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
56
The need for efficient routing protocols to allow the nodes to communicate
with some QoS guarantee has always been on the increase to achieve this, in Tekaya
et al.,2013 the authors worked on the AutoRegressive Moving Average (ARMA),
model which was used to forecasting resources to meet the QoS requirements in ad-
hoc networks. The authors applied this model in Ad-hoc On Demand Multipath
Distance Vector (AOMDV) protocol.
Vakilinia et al.,2013 presented a Multi-path Multi-Channel model for wireless
Ad-Hoc networks with a focus on voice calls for providing Quality of Service (QoS)
while addressing security and power consumption of such networks. The goal of their
paper was to provide a secure QoS aware optimum design which takes into account
cross layer relationships.
Maniscalco et al.,2013 considered Genetic Algorithms (GAs) for QoS routing
in MANETs. GAs could solve the NP search of QoS routes with multiple constraints,
and then address the UPC QoS requirements. The focus was on tree-based GAs,
which represented the set of paths from source to destination as a tree and encodes
them through the crossed junctions. They encode single paths in the chromosome.
They investigated the effects of binary encoding schema on tree-based GAs. To
achieve this purpose, the authors designed a GA with binary encoding that maps
classes of paths in single chromosomes. These classes were both collectively
exhaustive and mutually exclusive. The GA with binary encoding uses an adaptive
mutation probability for deeper exploration of the search space and local search on
classes of paths.
Gupta et al., 2013 presented QoS routing algorithm which found a optimal
path from source to destination as well as for other nodes in the network. Route
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
57
discovery was initiated by a source node and routing path was selected based on
routing metric value, which has delay and bandwidth as constraints. The probability
updating rule was used to increase the probability of beam in the direction of
successful transmission and it reduces the routing overhead in retransmission.
Aljeri et al.,2013 proposed to evaluate the performance of a load balanced and
introduce a new QoS gateway discovery protocol (Collaged) that permits the
connection to heterogeneous wireless networks. The protocol guaranteed both
balancing the load at the gateways levels and the routing paths between gateways and
gateway requesters. It also permitted gateway requesters to choose and connect to the
gateways that satisfy the QoS required by the vehicles.
Sakeena et al.,2013 focused on improving route maintenance for QoS in
MANETs. The Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol was
modified to provide QoS in terms of end-to-end delay and also to minimize the
modifications to the protocol.
The main purpose of QoS routing was to find a feasible path that has sufficient
resources to satisfy the constraints. Considering the fact that more than 2 metrics were
involved, there are additional computational complexities and proves to be NP-
complete problem. Stochastic optimization techniques were better solutions for these
kinds of problems. A routing model could be chosen either as a proactive or a reactive
protocol while proactive protocols were not optimal for rapidly changing topologies,
purely reactive protocols were often inappropriate for relatively static networks. In
addition, reactive protocols also suffer from additional delay for real-time traffic. In
such scenarios, hybrid routing was proven to improve on purely reactive-routing, if
most traffic was localized. In order to achieve routing efficiency in such an
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
58
environment, a hybrid routing strategy which combining the advantages of both
proactive and reactive mechanisms was proposed. In Nivetha et al., 2013, the authors
proposed a novel QoS routing strategy called Swarm-based Hybrid Routing Protocol
(SHRP) based on ant colony optimization to support the three metrics such as end-to-
end delay, bandwidth and hop count. The shortest path was decided according to
some other sub metrics. In wired networks these metrics could be more complex. In
Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) simpler metrics were used such as hop count. In
Simsek and Dogan., 2013 the authors suggested a new routing metric for MANETs:
One-Way-Delay (OWD).
Thaalbi et al.,2013 addressed the quality aware routing issue in MANET:
Mobile Ad-hoc networks. The MANET network was based on dynamic radio links.
Their contribution was found to improve the multipath routing in Mobile Ad-hoc
networks based on the path quality, path stability and QoS awareness. Prediction
methods were used to estimate the path quality. The paths would be sorted and
weighted according to the application class. Route selection process was based on
multi-criteria selection method. Interactions between routing layer and MAC layer
were exploited to get the path quality. To take into account the application class in the
routing process, cross layer interactions between routing layer and upper layers were
needed.
Hosek et al., 2013 dealt with the characteristics of Mobile Ad-hoc Networks
and the issue of Quality of Service assurance in these networks. The work focuses
mainly on the routing protocol AODV and its ability to provide different processing
probabilities for different types of network traffic. Firstly, the development of the
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
59
MANET simulation model and implementation of AODV protocol were described.
The Network Simulator 3 was used as the key software tool for this purpose.
Natkaniec et al., 2013 attempted to describe the Quality of Service (QoS)
mechanisms employed by Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols designed for ad-
hoc networks. Based on the presented survey, they observed that QoS provisioning,
was not only challenging but was also a significant contemporary research problem.
Ad-hoc wireless networks were considered to be the most suitable wireless
communication system in order to support various applications in mobility
environments. The following were certain requirements for providing real-time
applications in ad-hoc wireless networks, there were some requirements: i) the design
of routing algorithm with packet delivery reliability while maintaining the established
route for an arbitrary length of time (i.e., route duration); ii) the prompt transmission
of the packets communication pairs (i.e., the source and destination) while minimizing
packet delivery latency; iii) the minimization of the number of rebroadcasting nodes
in route discovery procedure in order to suppress redundant routing overhead. In Do-
hyeon Lee and Jeom-goo Kim.,2013 the authors analyzed and compared packet
forwarding approaches that were proposed to alleviate network overhead problems
and guarantee reliable and fast packet delivery to the destination in ad-hoc wireless
networks.
Xu Zhen and Xiao Juan., 2012 developed a energy-ware and delay-aware
routing approach for MANET. They based their approach on Dynamic Source
Routing (DSR) and it was found to both timeliness and energy efficiency by avoiding
low-power and busy intermediate node.
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
60
MANETs with cooperative communications (CO-MANETs) were vulnerable
to attacks initiated on relays. Although encryption and authentication protocols might
prevent compromised data transmission when a selected relay was attacked, their cost
is high. Du Zheng et al.,2012 proposed a game theoretic approach to quantitatively
analyze the attack strategies of the attacker inorder to make rational decision on relay
selection and the adaption of authentication parameter to reach the trade-off between
security and Quality of Service (QoS) in CO-MANETs.
Bagwari et al., 2012 analyzed the performance of reactive routing protocol via
increasing number of nodes and observing its effect on Quality of Service (QoS) of
Mobile Adhoc Network. They observed the performance of Routing Protocol via
enhancing the network size on the basis of the following parameters: delay,
throughput, traffic sent, traffic received, data dropped and network load. Network
simulation tool used in simulation was OPNET Modeler (Ver. 14.0).
Abassi and Fatmi., 2012 used a delegation process in order to enhance the
QoS of Ad-hoc networks by allowing the perpetuity of routes without stopping the
packets transfer nor the re-calculation of a novel route. In view of the importance of
this issue, they proposed to base delegation on trust relations. Trust was a security
concept generally used to provide collaborating network entities with a mean to
counter their uncertainty.
Hengheng Xie et al., 2012 proposed, a novel contention window adjustment
QoS scheme, as a special case of QoS classification for achieving QoS-fairness on
Ad-hoc Networks. It applies dynamic automatic QoS assignment with low complexity
by considering the restriction among various terminal requirements.
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
61
Cakan and Wieser., 2012 presented the application of directional antennas in
wireless MANET network and its contribution to enhancement of Quality of Service
(QoS) parameters. The model of wireless MANET network was created in NS-2
simulator with two types of antennas - omni-directional and directional.
Liu et al., 2012 described the Ad-hoc on-demand QoS routing based on
Bandwidth Prediction (AQBP). Differing from the existing QoS routing protocols,
AQBP takes node future bandwidth into consideration when selecting route.
Providing Quality-of-Service (QoS) support for Ad-hoc networks was a challenging
task due to dynamicity, lack of centralized control, constrained resources and
unreliable nature of radio channels and in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks. Finding a path
that remains valid for sufficiently longer period was also a critical task in MANET. In
Srinivasan and Kamalakkannan., 2012 the authors proposed a novel, stability and
energy-based QoS routing protocol, which was an extension of their route stability
and energy based routing (RSEA) to support applications with throughput and delay
constraints.
Yang Qin et al.,2012 proposed a flow admission control scheme at the routing
layer to mitigate the above problem by taking pre-emptive measures through
bandwidth and congestion estimation. The scheme could reduce unnecessary control
overhead for route maintenance and select a proper route for a flow, thus improving
the overall network performance quality. Moreover, established routes could be
protected from any changes in traffic load for the duration of the route lifetime.
Yuanfeng Wen et al.,2012 the authors developed an M/M+/1 model for the
service discovery on MANET nodes. This model was first applied to predict system
behaviors such as system throughput and then to find the value of a control variable. It
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
62
was found that the calculated value was set at runtime, the system would provide the
optimal QoS.
Santhi et al.,2011 proposed a MANET routing protocol considering the QoS
(Quality of Service) parameters such as bandwidth efficiency, link stability and power
metric. The idea of learning the network status information to enhance network
routing was the key concept of their project. This helps to learn about the expiry of
links and choose the path with a longer time expiry.
Al-Soufy and Abbas.,2011 presented a routing protocol which identified
multiple node-disjoint paths between a given source and a destination. These multiple
node-disjoint paths were examined for satisfying QoS in terms of end-to-end delay.
They analyzed the end-to-end delay along the paths taking into account the IEEE
802.11 contention delays.
Ping Feng et al.,2011 designed a cognitive retransmission mechanism for the
communication scenarios based on the directional antenna. The mechanism could
increase the probability of successful retransmission on one hand; on the other hand, it
could dramatically reduce the route discovery time in ad-hoc networks. For factual
applications, they propose a QoS-constrained cognitive routing algorithm named as
QoS CRA for wireless ad-hoc networks. This algorithm adopts the strategy of
initiating the route discovery by the source node, but by deciding to choose the
destination node.
Heuristic algorithms should be developed for multi-path constraints QoS
routing. Also, the routing methods should be adaptive, flexible, and intelligent. In
Barolli et al., 2011 the authors used Genetic Algorithms (GAs) and Multi-objective
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
63
Optimization for QoS routing in Ad-hoc Networks. In order to reduce the search
space of GA, they implemented a Search Space Reduction Algorithm (SSRA).
Ali et al., 2011 presented a new approach based on multipath routing
backbones for enhanced QoS in MANETs. Nodes in MANETs greatly differ with
each other in terms of communication and processing capabilities. In this approach,
multiple routing backbones were identified from source to destination using
intermediate nodes that contain better communication and processing capabilities to
take part in the mobile routing backbones and to efficiently participate in the routing
process.
Anzar et al., 2011 proposed a mechanism in which communication outside the
cluster was distributed through separate Cluster Head Gateways. The routing
reliability to outside the cluster was increased since routes to different clusters used
distinct Cluster Head Gateways.
Szu-Lin Su et al., 2011 designed a quality-of-service routing protocol,
containing efficient bandwidth estimations, admission control and node-disjoint
multipath establishment. While detecting link breaks, they used back-up routes to
avoid another wasteful route discovery. If a single route with sufficient bandwidth
cannot be discovered, they combine multiple routes to support QoS transmission.
Xiaon'an Feng., 2011 proposed a hybrid routing scheme based on a dynamic
clustering algorithm. The adaptive clustering algorithm deals with mobility, transmit
power conservation and improving system throughput. Routing algorithm proposed
was decoupled from the clustering algorithm, and tradeoff between proactive and
reactive routing, and tradeoff route optimality for routing overhead in a novel way.
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
64
Moreover, the author describes how to gather three metrics, which were used to
support Qos aware route computation.
Many shortest path routing protocols have been proposed, neglecting the
effect of lower layers. In Dahal, Sanguankotchakorn., 2011 authors proposed a
modified Ad-hoc On Demand Distance Vector routing based on Bit Error Rate
(MAODV-BER) , where the route discovery of AODV was modified to achieve the
stable route by obtaining Bit Error Rate (BER) information from physical layer
through cross-layer approach.
Zheng Sihai et al.,2011 put forward a QoS-based multipath routing protocol
QMPSR. It took bandwidth and delay constraint into account and could find several
paths to provide QoS guarantee. Simulation showed that QMPSR protocol was better
than QoS-MSR. Further, the following could be observed: it had a higher packet
delivery ratio, lesser average delay and minimum increased routing overhead
Qabajeh et al.,2011 proposed a model that searches for QoS paths from a
single source to a set of destinations. The physical area was partitioned into equal size
hexagonal cells and a leader and backup leader nodes were selected to maintain up-to-
date information about the network topology. Efficient routing was performed based
on nodes positions to deliver data packets to all the receivers.
Kyung-Seop Shin et al.,2011, proposed a multi-channel MAC protocol that
provides QoS for ad-hoc networks based on the IEEE 802.11 DCF mode. The IEEE
802.11 standard gives methodologies and examples for contention-based distributed
coordination systems for only a single channel. To overcome this limited channel
usage, many studies on how it works in multi-channel environment have been
performed. The IEEE 802.11e proposed the priority schemes that operate on the
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
65
single channel. They combine this concept supporting QoS with multi-channel MAC
protocol, thus achieving the advantage of multi-channel and provide QoS for real-time
users.
Jian Chen et al.,2011 proposed a route protocol called Qos-AOMDV which
takes into consideration, namely the balance of the route and power. Qos-AOMDV
was based on cross-layer design, which could cooperate in sharing network-status
information in different layers, while maintaining the layers separation to optimize
overall network performance. In the path selection phase, the destination nodes did
not reply to route request (RREQ) immediately. Route reply (RREP) was carried out
based on the general cost criterion. In the transmission phase the data was transmitted
in multiple paths one by one to balance the energy and the traffic loads in multiple
paths.
Hui Xia et al., 2011 introduced the concept of trust into multicast routing
problem which was made as another QoS constraint. Finally they propose a multicast
trusted routing algorithm with QoS multi-constraints based on a modified ant colony
algorithm. In this new algorithm, ants moved constantly on the network to find an
optimal constrained multicast security tree. Their algorithm could quickly find the
feasible solution to solve constrained multicast security routing issue when compared
to CSTMAN new algorithm showed improved the packet delivery ratio.
Nazhad et al., 2011 proposed a fully distributed MAC algorithm to support the
QoS in ad-hoc networks. This algorithm provided delay fairness and delay
differentiation for real-time flows. This algorithm also used the fixed and/or less
stationary nodes for the transmission of real-time flows by increasing the QoS of the
multimedia flows.
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
66
Deepalakshmi and Radhakrishnan.,2011 introduced a Source initiated Mesh
and soft-state based QoS Probabilistic multicast routing protocol (SQMP) for
MANETs. SQMP drew its inspiration from the ant colony's route finding algorithm
through which an ant chooses the best path to its destination by cooperating with
others. Similar to the behaviour of the ant searching for food, SQMP introduces
Probabilistic forwarding and soft state for making forwarding decisions with QoS
satisfaction which were automatically adaptive to mobility of nodes in MANETs.
Otrok et al.,2011 considered the tradeoff between prolonging the ad-hoc
network lifetime and QoS assurance based on QOLSR routing protocol. They
proposed a novel clustering algorithm and a relay node selection based on different
combinations of metrics, such as connectivity, residual energy, and bandwidth. Four
cluster-based models were derived.
Oh Chan Kwon et al., 2011 presented an effective QoS routing algorithm
based on the IEEE 802.11 multi-rate for video streaming over mobile ad-hoc
networks. The proposed routing algorithm was designed to minimize the consumed
timeslots while guaranteeing the required timeslots at all the pairs of adjacent nodes
over the route and the contention neighbours of these nodes to support the route.
Furthermore, the proposed routing algorithm could distribute the network loads well
over the entire network.
Zafar et al., 2011 proposed a new capacity-constrained QoS-aware routing
scheme. The novel part of this scheme was a simple additional mechanism to estimate
the residual capacity in IEEE 802.11-based ad-hoc networks. The scheme proposed
the use of a `forgiveness factor' to weigh these previous measurements. It was shown
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
67
through simulation-based evaluation to provide improved utilizations estimation and
better available capacity based admission control.
Jin Lu et al., 2011 proposed a protocol combining a new particle swarm
optimization algorithm and MAODV multicast routing discovery algorithm, which
divided the set of multicast trees into families. Family history optimal solution and
global optimal solution would determine the optimal choice for every iteration
process, until global convergence occurred. The Protocol not only met the QoS
requirements of ad-hoc, but also achieved global convergence quickly and found a
multicast routing tree with a minimal cost and a stable state.
Rong Geng., 2011 proposed a designed on cross layer QoS model in mobile
Ad-hoc network for mobile Ad-hoc networks. By considering path end-to-end
communication delay, path usable degree (PUD), hops and throughput ratio, the
required bandwidth of routing as access control restriction, the model analyzed and
made decisions on the routes between the source and destination node.
A QoS-aware routing (QAR) protocol and an admission control (AC) protocol
were two of the most important components of a system attempted to provide QoS
guarantees in the face of the above - mentioned difficulties. In Hanzo and Tafazolli.,
2011, proposed and evaluated new solutions for improving the performance of QAR
and AC protocols in the face of mobility, shadowing, and varying link SINR. It was
found that proactively maintaining backup routes for active sessions, adapting
transmission rates, and routing around temporarily low-SINR links could noticeably
improve the reliability of assured throughput services.
Bitam et al.,2010, introduced a new multipath quality of service (QoS) routing
protocol for mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) called QoSBeeManet. Based on the
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
68
autonomic bee communication principle, the protocol guarantees, in addition to the
basic routing functionality, a set of measurable QoS metrics used for multimedia and
real time applications. To reduce the network congestion, QoSBeeManet used a
stochastic broadcasting of scouts as routing packets. Moreover, an evaluation of each
discovered path was executed and was taken into account by the source node in the
aim to transmit fairly data packets through the paths found.
Wai Yee Tai et al., 2010 presented an adaptive routing scheme that works with
IPv6 that provides QoS for real time applications transmission in such an
unpredictable ad-hoc network by exploiting the Flow label resided in the IPv6 packet
header.
Naeem et al., 2010 the author evaluated two secure routing protocols Ariadne
and SAODV in terms of performance than security under random way point and
Manhattan grid mobility models. They used and implement the extension of AODV
that was secure ad-hoc on-demand distance vector routing protocol (SAODV) and the
extension of DSR (i.e) Ariadne in the network simulator 2 (NS-2). In their study, they
compared these protocols on basis of following quality of service parameters such as
delay, jitter, routing overhead, route acquisition time, throughput, hop count, packet
delivery ratio using Manhattan grid and random waypoint mobility models. Their
main aim was to find out the payload a node has to pay to guarantee the good quality
of service.
Roy et al., 2010 focused on proposing a new route maintenance strategy with
multiple options that would lead to better performance during link failure on a route.
During route discovery and route reply procedures, delay & bandwidth were the two
different QoS parameters considered. The routes should be selected during route
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
69
discovery process. The route maintenance strategy may be applied to both the routes
independently and simultaneously by the internal nodes where the link failure
occurred.
A constant change in the topologies of the Ad-hoc Network leads to routing
reconstruction. In order to reduce route reconstruction, Jin Lian and Xiao-yan Zhu.,
2010, presented a node-disjoint multi-path QoS routing algorithm based on entropy in
ad-hoc network. The algorithm adopted the entropy metric to measure the routing
stability and satisfied the bandwidth constraint. Therefore, it could obtain the node-
disjoint multipath QoS routing.
To exploit multiuser diversity and achieve QoS requirements in MIMO ad-hoc
networks, Jialing Zheng and Maode Ma., 2010 proposed an optimal scheduling policy
which utilizes stream control schemes. They also presented a medium access control
(MAC) protocol to implement the optimal scheduling policy.
A new Virtual Base Station (VBS) election technique was proposed in Fahmy
et al., 2010. The authors helped in QoS provisioning in the infrastructure-less Mobile
Ad-hoc Networks referred to as MANET. This VBS election technique was based on
the mobile node's Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) and was applied on the MANET's
hybrid routing protocol: The Zone-based Routing Protocol. The developed routing
protocols were referred to as SNR-VBS ZRP. Based on the QoS adopted definitions
special to the MANETs, the performance evaluation metrics were redefined in the
paper.
Goudarzi et al., 2009, introduced a cross-layer technique which was based on
the packet loss information from the lower layers. Some optimal bandwidth was
assigned to the real-time applications which needed some levels of the maximum
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
70
packet loss guaranties. As each real-time application needed a different level of
maximum packet loss guarantee, a weighted aggregate packet loss objective function
was introduced. The weights were found to be proportional to importance of the
packet loss mitigation for a specific application.
Manoj et al., 2009, analyzed the packet scheduling algorithm to find those that
improved performance in congested network. They presented a fuzzy based priority
scheduler for mobile ad-hoc networks to determine the priority of the packets using
Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDVs) as the routing protocols. It was
found that the scheduler provided an overall improvement in the performance of the
system when evaluated under different load and mobility conditions.
Malany and Chandrasekaran., 2009, demonstrated how to design a network
according to the applications of mobile adhoc network experiments with different
workloads. The average end-to-end delay, throughput and average jitter were some of
the metrics used for quality of service requirements, which were evaluated in their
paper. The event analysis was also performed and they validated the scheme by
simulating under different speed utilization with IEEE 802.11 distributed coordination
function (DCF) adhoc mode.
Abdrabou and Weihua Zhuang., 2009, proposed a model-based quality-of-
service (QoS) routing scheme for IEEE 802.11 ad-hoc networks. Unlike most of QoS
routing schemes in literature, the proposed scheme provides stochastic end-to-end
delay guarantees, instead of average delay guarantees, to delay-sensitive busy traffic
sources. The scheme selects the routes based on a geographical on-demand ad-hoc
routing protocol via a cross-layer design approach and checks the availability of
network resources by using traffic source and link-layer channel modelling. It also
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
71
took into consideration the IEEE 802.11 characteristics and node interactions. Their
scheme extended the well developed effective bandwidth theory and its dual effective
capacity concept to multihop IEEE 802.11 ad-hoc networks.
In order to satisfy the demand of rapid growth of multimedia applications in
mobile ad-hoc network (MANET), Gao Qian., 2009 proposed an improved QoS
routing algorithm based on AODV. It adopted the mechanism of intermediate request
returning, selected flooding, and local route recovery. The protocol was observed to
reduce control overhead and route searching time, and to provide the QoS routing
stability in dynamic mobile ad-hoc networks.
Calafate et al., 2009, proposed a novel QoS architecture which was able to
support applications with the bandwidth, delay, and jitter requirements in MANET
environments. The proposed architecture was modular, allowing the plugging in of
different protocols thus offering great flexibility. Despite its modularity, they
proposed optimizations based on interactions between the media access control
(MAC), routing, and admission control layers which offer significant performance
improvements. They validated their proposal in scenarios where different network
loads, node mobility degrees, and routing algorithms were tested in order to quantify
the benefits offered by their QoS proposal.
Ming Yu and Leung., 2009, a new secure routing protocol (SRP) with quality
of service (QoS) support, called trustworthiness-based quality of service (TQOS)
routing, which included secure route discovery, secure route setup, and
trustworthiness-based QoS routing metrics. The routing control messages were
secured by using both public and shared keys, which could be generated on-demand
and maintained dynamically. The message exchanging mechanism also provided a
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
72
way to detect attacks against routing protocols, particularly the most difficult internal
attacks. The routing metrics were obtained by combing the requirements on the
trustworthiness of the nodes in the network and the QoS of the links along a route.
Caviglione et al.,2009 investigated the capabilities offered by a P2P overlay
for distributed bandwidth management in a controlled ad-hoc deployment, to support
specific requirements in service-oriented wireless networks. The proposed mechanism
allows complementing the core functionalities of the IEEE 802.11e protocol, and
enhancing them to handle local mobility and dynamic requests for bandwidth.
Yahaya et al.,2008 explored iREX's network load distribution by comparing
its performance to a lower bound for network congestion in two ways. They first
presented an analytical model of iREX in terms of an online algorithm and analyzed
its efficiency via competitive analysis. Their main results showed that the efficiency
loss of iREX with respect to monetary cost was upper-bounded by a factor of 8 K/2
K+1, where K s the number of deployments and provided affine linear price functions
were used. When the price functions were used to model congestion in the network,
this result implied upper bounds on the efficiency loss of iREX with respect to
network congestion. They then complemented the analytical model with a numerical
study using simulations, whole deriving optimal solutions derived from unsplittable
and splittable multi-commodity flow optimization models.
ZhengMing Shen and Thomas.,2008 proposed a mechanism for a distributed
dynamic management system which aims to maximize QoS and/or security while
maintaining a minimum user acceptable level of QoS and/or security even as network
resource availability change. In order to achieve this objective, authors proposed three
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
73
basic frameworks: a policy based plug-in security framework, multi-layer QoS guided
routing and a proportional integral derivative (PID) controller.
Hang Su and Xi Zhang.,2008 proposed the cross-layer based opportunistic
multi-channel medium access control (MAC) protocols, which integrated the
spectrum sensing at physical (PHY) layer with the packet scheduling at MAC layer,
for the wireless ad-hoc networks. The MAC protocols in particular enabled the
secondary users to identify and utilize the leftover frequency spectrum in such a way
that constrains the level of interference to the primary users. In their proposed
protocols, each secondary user was equipped with two transceivers. One transceiver
was tuned to the dedicated control channel, while the other was designed specifically
as a cognitive radio that could periodically sense and dynamically use the identified
un-used channels. To obtain the channel state accurately, they proposed two
collaborative channel spectrum-sensing policies, namely, the random sensing policy
and the negotiation-based sensing policy to help the MAC protocols detect the
availability of leftover channels. Under the random sensing policy, each secondary
user just randomly selected one of the channels for sensing. On the other hand, under
the negotiation-based sensing policy, different secondary users attempted to select the
distinct channels to sense by overhearing the control packets over the control channel.
They developed the Markov chain model and the M/GY/1-based queueing model to
characterize the performance of their proposed multi-channel MAC protocols under
the two types of channel-sensing policies for the saturation network and the non-
saturation network scenarios, respectively.
The concept of cross-layer design is based on architecture where different
layers could exchange information in order to improve the overall network
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
74
performance. Promising results were achieved by cross-layer optimizations which
initiated a significant research activity in this area. Qian Zhang and Ya-Qin
Zhang.,2008 aimed at reviewing the cross-layer paradigm for QoS support in
multihop wireless networks.
QoS qualifiers in the IP header were prone to attacks. Malicious modifications
might result in both theft and denial of services. Standard IPsec does not cover these
header fields, leaving them prone to attacks. Hegland and Winjum.,2008 proposed a
variant of the IPsec authentication header that includes protection of these fields. The
solution was designed for single-domain networks with planned origin, such as
military ad-hoc networks.
Qing Chen et al.,2008 considered an opportunistic scheduling that takes
advantage of a time-varying channel among different receivers to improve system
performance. Maximizing the overall throughput and satisfying the QoS requirements
for the transmission flows were the two important objectives that were considered.
They presented an optimal scheduling policy which maximized the overall network
performance while satisfying the QoS requirements of the individual flow. They also
proposed a distributed cooperative and opportunistic scheduling algorithm that
modifies the IEEE 802.11 protocol to implement the optimal scheduling policy.
Yue Rong and Hua.,2008 addressed the proportional fair (PF) and quality-of-
service (QoS) issues of the STPS scheme, which were important for those networks
with asymmetric topology and/or asymmetric traffic demands. Both slow fading
channels and fast fading channels were considered. They demonstrated that the PF-
STPS scheme provided a very attractive tradeoff between the sum capacity and rate
distribution for asymmetric links. They also demonstrated that the QoS-STPS scheme
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
75
has a much higher power-and-spectral efficiency when compared to the previously
existing QoS based scheme that do not exploit the temporal freedom.
Bo Yang and Hurson.,2007 proposed a semantic-aware image caching (SAIC)
scheme. Their proposed scheme could efficiently utilize the cache space and
significantly reduce the cost of image retrieval. The proposed SAIC scheme was
based on several innovative ideas: 1) multilevel representation of the semantic
contents, 2) association-based and Bayesian probability-based content prediction, 3)
constraint-based representation method showing the semantic similarity between
images, 4) nonflooding query processing, and 5) adaptive cache consistency
maintenance. The proposed model was introduced, and through extensive simulation,
its behaviour was compared against two state-of-the-art ad-hoc caching schemes.
Carrascal Frias., 2007 described a MM-DSR (Multipath Multimedia Dynamic
Source Routing) which was a multipath routing protocol DSR-based merged with a
cross-layer algorithm to provide QoS for multiple sources of video over IEEE
802.11b Ad-hoc networks. The weaknesses of the system with plain DSR and IEEE
802.11b were analysed and work was done in order to improve the throughput and the
final user quality. The performance of video-streaming applications was improved
under high traffic load conditions over mobile Ad-hoc networks.
Vergados et al.,2006, illustrated a method for invoking this algorithm to
achieve efficient end-to-end QoS provisioning and concluded by demonstrating the
superiority of the proposed algorithm over the other recently proposed TDMA
scheduling algorithms.
Hui Cheng et al., 2006, examined the problem of quality-of-service group
communications in a heterogeneous network which consisted of multiple mobile ad-
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
76
hoc networks attached to the backbone Internet. A heuristic multicast algorithm
named delay and delay variation multicast algorithm (DDVMA) was proposed. It
could find a multicast tree satisfying the multicast end-to-end delay constraint and
minimize the multicast delay variation. Two concepts were proposed, namely, 1) the
proprietary second shortest path and 2) the partially proprietary second shortest path
could help the DDVMA achieve better performance in terms of multicast delay
variation than the delay and delay variation constraint algorithm be the most efficient
so far. An analysis was given to show the correctness of DDVMA, and simulations
were conducted to demonstrate the performance improvement of DDVMA in terms of
multicast delay variation.
In Lent., 2006 the author addressed two scalability problems related to the
cognitive map of packets in ad-hoc cognitive packet networks and proposed a
solution. Previous works included latency as part of the routing goal of smart packets,
which required packets to collect their arrival time at each node in a path. Such a
requirement resulted in a packet overhead proportional to the path length. The second
problem was that the multiplicative form of path availability, which was employed to
measure resources, loses accuracy in long paths.
Abdrabou and Weihua Zhuang.,2006 presented a position-based quality-of-
service (QoS) routing scheme for UWB mobile ad-hoc networks. The scheme applies
call admission control and temporary bandwidth reservation for discovered routes,
taking into consideration the medium access control interactions. Via cross-layer
design, it exploited UWB advantages at the network layer by using the position
information in routing and bandwidth reservation and by supporting the multirate
capability.
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
77
Qingwen Liu et al., 2006 proposed a scheduling algorithm at the medium
access control (MAC) layer for multiple connections with diverse QoS requirements,
where each connection employs adaptive modulation and coding (AMC) scheme at
the physical (PHY) layer over wireless fading channels. Each connection was
assigned a priority, which was updated dynamically based on its channel and service
status; the connection with the highest priority was scheduled each time. The authors'
scheduler provided diverse QoS guarantees, used the wireless bandwidth efficiently,
and enjoys flexibility, scalability, and low implementation complexity
Yang Xiao and Yi Pan., 2005 have studied and enhanced distributed medium
access techniques for real-time transmissions in IEEE 802.11 single-hop ad-hoc
wireless networks. In the IEEE 802.11 MAC, error control adopted positive
acknowledgement and retransmission to improve transmission reliability in the
wireless medium (WM). They have addressed several MAC issues and QoS issues
for delay-sensitive real-time traffic in their study. First, a priority scheme was
proposed to differentiate the delay sensitive real-time traffic from the best-effort
traffic. In the proposed priority scheme, retransmission was not used for the real-time
traffic, and a smaller backoff window size was adopted. Second, they proposed
several schemes to guarantee QoS requirements. While the first scheme was to
guarantee frame-dropping probability for the real-time traffic, the second was to
guarantee throughput and delay. The last scheme was to guarantee throughput, delay,
and frame-dropping probability simultaneously.
A typical communication shelter was composed of unencrypted LANs
connected to a packet-encrypted backbone network. Elmasry et al.,2005 presented a
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
78
partitioned QoS approach, focusing on QoS management at the unencrypted LAN that
complemented QoS management done at the encrypted backbone.
3.2 SECURITY ISSUES IN MANET
Kukreja et al.,2014 proposed a novel method for securing Mobile Ad-hoc
Networks. They used Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) as the principal protocol and
presented a method which selects the most trustworthy path between the source and
destination that was free from malicious nodes. The proposed method identified and
punished the malicious nodes inducing a variety of attacks like: malicious topology
change behaviour, dropping data packets, dropping control packets and packet
modification.
Using recent advances in mean field game theory. Yanwei Wang.,2014,
proposed a novel game theoretic approach with multiple players for security in
MANETs. The proposed scheme could enable an individual node in MANETs to
make strategic security defence decisions without the need for a centralized
administration. In addition, since security defence mechanisms consume precious
system resources (e.g., energy), the proposed scheme considered not only the security
requirement of MANETs, but also the system resources. Moreover, each node in the
proposed scheme needs to know just its own state information and the aggregate
effect of the other nodes in the MANET.
The distinctive features of mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs), including
dynamic topology and open wireless medium, may result in making MANETs prove
to many security vulnerabilities. To overcome this issue Wei et al., 2014, proposed a
trust management scheme and the trust model has two components: trust from direct
observation and trust from indirect observation. Dempster-Shafer theory was another
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
79
type of uncertain reasoning where the proposition of interest could be derived by an
indirect method. Combining these two components in the trust model, they obtained a
more accurate trust values of the observed nodes in MANETs. They then evaluated
their scheme under the scenario of MANET routing. Extensive simulation results
showed the effectiveness of the proposed scheme. Specifically, throughput and packet
delivery ratio could be significantly improved with a slightly increased average end-
to-end delay and overhead of messages.
Khatri., 2014 work proposed a composite identity and trust based model
(CIDT) which was dependent on public key, physical identity, and trust of a node
which enabled secure data transfer over wireless channels. CIDT was a modified DSR
routing protocol for achieving security. Experience based trust factor (TF) of a node
was used to decide the authenticity of a node. A valid certificate was generated for
authentic node to carry out the communication in the network. The proposed method
was found to work well for self certification scheme of a node in the network.
Ben Chehida et al., 2013 proposed a novel reputation-based clustering
mechanism to locate malicious nodes and isolate them. In order to reduce network
overhead and to handle network topology dynamicity, the proposed mechanism was
based on a specific clustering environment. The complexity of clustering maintenance
was for its part reduced by the use of a reputation based delegation process, thus
allowing the cluster-head to delegate its privileges to a chosen cluster member in case
of displacement or lack of energy.
Though there were various Routing protocols in Mobile Ad-hoc network, the
ad-hoc on demand distance vector (AODV) is one of the most popular and widely
used with many attributes when a particular host or nodes fails as it sends message
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
80
regarding this to particular source. Performance will be on the downgrade. Pandya
and Shrivastava.,2013 observed the performance of AODV Reactive routing protocol
and Analyzes different attacks that could be possible on AODV. Their paper also
explained two layer signature schemes with security, which includes secure hash
algorithm which was further aimed at improving normal AODV's performance. Their
study also going proposed an extended version to the secure AODV protocol that
included secure hash algorithm, aimed at further improving its security with network
performance.
Qiu Wang et al.,2013 investigated the eavesdropping security of wireless ad-
hoc networks equipped with directional antennas. They studied the eavesdropping
possibility of OMN networks- SDA networks where each node is equipped with a
simplistic directional antenna and RDA networks were each node was equipped with
a realistic directional antenna. They conducted extensive simulations to evaluate the
eavesdropping possibility of OMN networks, SDA networks and RDA networks
while considering various environment factors, such as path loss attenuation and
shadowing effects.
The Cross Layer Design Architecture has been becoming more and
morepopular with its performance improvements. Kaur et al.,2013 proposed a security
architecture was proposed for Cross Layer Design Architecture of MANET. They also
analyzed the security mechanism in m-Governance applications in scope of proposed
security architecture. MANET security ideally takes place during the design phase of
the routing module.
Shurman et al., 2013 proposed a novel scheme that merged the process of
assigning IP addresses and security keys to the nodes in MANET and uses the
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
81
protocol such that as soon as a node enters the network, it would be assigned an IP
address and security key. They assumed that no single protocol provides both IP
addresses and security keys for MANET nodes. The results of the proposed method,
which was based on T-DAAP, showed a significant reduction in the control packets
and packet delay. Additionally, it provided not only efficient security to the nodes
from the first moment they join the network, but also secure delivery of IP addresses
and security keys to the network nodes.
Since they allow fast and easy deployment and could cope with dynamic
topology changes. Ad-hoc network technologies were a candidate of choice for
military tactical networks. Bidan et al.,2013 presented the results of the PREVA
(PRotection and EVAluation) project whose goal was to study the use and security of
ad-hoc network technologies in the context of military tactical networks.
Soni and Nayak.,2013 presented a novel security mechanism to enhance
security & performance of AODV (Adhoc On-demand Distance Vector) routing
protocol under the attack for MANET (Mobile Ad-hoc Networks). The AODV
routing protocol was initially developed without considering the security factor.
Hence it was not able to defend against any kind of security attack. But there were
many security mechanisms available that make AODV secure. In their study, they
presented a novel security mechanism that integrates digital signature and hash chain
to protect the AODV routing protocol that was capable of defending itself both
against malicious and unauthenticated nodes with a marginal difference in
performance. The proposed security mechanism was also simulated in the Network
Simulator 2 (NS2) to show marginal performance difference under attack.
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
82
Ad-hoc Networks were a new generation of networks offering unrestricted
mobility without any underlying infrastructure. Due to lack of centralized control,
secured communication in mobile ad-hoc network continues to be a crucial issue due
to dynamic nature of the network topology. Ramachandran and Ruban.,2013 proposed
an effective security AODV algorithm called ES-AODV to enhance data security.
Recently there has been an increasing interest in bio-inspired algorithms, such
as Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), for developing and designing communication
systems. These algorithms borrow the laws from nature by mimicking natural
biological behaviours. Memarmoshrefi et al., 2013, considered the dynamic nature of
ad-hoc networks in terms of nodes behavior and nodes' speed with regards to the
network size. They investigated the performance of a proposed autonomous bio-
inspired public key management against these parameters.
Donglai Sun et al.,2012 proposed a scheduling scheme under physical layer
security. This emerging technology was introduced to provide perfect secrecy to
wireless ad-hoc network. However, a big loss of network performance was also
imported to the system. As links with different physical layers coexist in the wireless
network, service qualities such as overall throughput could be affected if traditional
scheduling schemes were applied. Thus, it is important to develop a new MAC layer
scheduling scheme.. Here, opportunistic scheduling with scaled transmission rate was
used to solve the problem. A pure threshold policy could be derived for scheduling
scheme.
Nogueira et al., 2012 presented SAMNAR, a Survivable Ad-hoc and Mesh
Network ARchitecture. It aims at managing adaptively preventive, reactive and
tolerant security mechanisms to provide essential services even under attacks,
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
83
intrusions or failures. They used SAMNAR to design a path selection scheme for
WANET routing. The evaluation of this path selection scheme considers scenarios
using urban mesh network mobility with urban propagation models, and also random
way point mobility with two-ray ground propagation models.
Jeyakumar and Nithya.,2012 proposal combined both the technologies and
provided avenues for further research. In ad-hoc grid environment in particular,
resources were not always available as the nodes could spontaneously connect and
disconnect any time. They proposed a mobile agent based trust model in ad-hoc grid
environment for improving the performance considerations and security issues.
Simulation results demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed work, to detect and
punish those nodes with malicious behaviour, such as selfish nodes, injected nodes
and so on.
Glowacka and Amanowicz.,2012 presented a concept of Dezert-Smarandache
theory application to enhance security in tactical mobile ad-hoc network. Tactical
MANET, due to its specification, requires collection and processing of information
from different sources of diverse security and trust metrics. The authors specified the
needs for building a node's situational awareness and identified data sources used for
calculations of trust metrics.
In Yue Ma et al., 2012 the authors proposed an Adaptive Risk Control and
Security Management (ARCSM) mechanism for centralized distributed systems.
ARCSM has the ability to guarantee the soft real-time and provide as strongest
possible security protection. To meet this requirement, the host server was able to
refuse to serve for those tasks that missed the deadline missed tasks. In each node, a
two-level scheduling framework was designed to implement the feedback control
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
84
twice. In the first feedback, an appropriate initial security level was assigned for new
task. At the runtime, the second feedback could dynamically adjust the ready tasks'
security level based on runtime status. Considering the features of embedded systems,
they measured the energy and time costs of cryptographic algorithms and established
a method to quantify the security risk.
ZRP was one such protocols that help in creating and maintain routes in spite
of the dynamic network topology. This protocol was vulnerable to a number of
security threats that come from internal malicious nodes which have authorization
credentials to participate in the network. Malicious nodes deliberately drop data
packets and disrupt the correct operation of the routing protocol. ElRefaie et al.,2012
authors proposed a security enhancement of ZRP based on trust calculations. The
performance of a defenceless ZRP when a number of network's nodes misbehave and
drop data packets was evaluated. The impact of proposed enhancement was then
evaluated and compared to the performance of the defenseless ZRP.
Younchan Jung and Festijo.,2011 proposed the key agreement architecture
that could be realized by encrypting RTP (Real-time Protocol) packets with call-based
dynamic group key. They also proposed the key control device (KCD) that can legally
listen to any group call. They solved these contradictory sounding goals: encrypting
call traffic and monitoring call traffic. The key agreement part forced every group
member to calculate the key tree by means of an iterative Diffie-Hellman group key
exchange. In the proposed key management, the transaction manager (TM) was
designed to report call information so KCD may compute the same group key for
security control. In contrast to the called members, the calling user (that was, TM)
generated a random number that was temporarily used as its one time session key
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
85
doing duty for its original private key. This one time session key would stop the group
key from being re-used and prevent exploitation of group key weaknesses. Finally,
they analyzed the computational load (Cload) and message transmission load
(MTload) required for group key computation.
Securing the transfer of data in mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) was still a
challenging issue. Che-Yu Liu et al.,2011 proposed a method for providing message
security in MANETs when nodes cooperate in routing. Their approach combines a
trust-based multipath routing scheme and a real-time recurrent neural network-based
(RRNN) cipher (yielding TR-RRNN scheme) to deal with the issues underlying
message confidentiality, integrity, and access control. A recently proposed message
security scheme for MANETs (so- called Original Trust-based Multi-path Routing
scheme (OTMR)) used. The route selection time and trust compromised as the
performance criteria.
For transferring sensitive data as in military applications, it is necessary to
achieve integrity, confidentiality and authenticity. Diwanji and Shah., 2011 proposed
a scheme to generate encryption key with unimodal biometric fingerprint. As mobile
ad-hoc network does not have heavy computational power, multimodal biometric
approach is not feasible. Feature sets were generated from the receivers fingerprint
with the help of regression model using binomial distribution. The encryption key
generated was of 48 bits for the DES algorithm. Digital signature was used to achieve
authentication. The proposed scheme was evaluated for cryptanalysis, brute force
attack and it was found out that this scheme could withstand against all attacks. It was
observed that the that false accept rate was zero and that the false reject rate was
higher.
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
86
Mariappan and Mohan.,2011 presented new protocol design scenario called
Re-Pro Routing Protocol (RPRP) Broadcasting wireless mobile Ad-hoc Network.
They also compared the performance of Mobile Ad-hoc Networks protocols like as
Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing protocol focusing on the effects of
changes such as the increasing number of receivers or sources and increasing the
number of nodes. Although some simulation results of MANET protocols have been
published before, these protocols have not been compared in isolation. The
performance evaluation of these protocols was systematically done by performing
certain simulations. The trust methods were one of the security methods in mobile
Ad-Hoc networks and though methods were prone to security risks, they however
found their acceptance due to efficiency over computationally expensive and time
consuming cryptographic methods. The major problem with the trust methods was the
period during which the trust grows and was yet to reach the requisite threshold. They
also proposed a security mechanism dependent upon Electronic Code (EC) combined
with permutation functions. Their proposed mechanism has the following advantages
lesser time complexity, easy implementation facility, computational inexpensive and
high brute force search value.
Koul et al.,2011 used system level security for deploying the overall security
in MANETs. The system level security was the security at node level as they believe
that if nodes behave properly and in a coordinated fashion, the insecurity level would
go down drastically.
Chi Zhang et al.,2011 analysed a general random network model, the
asymptotic behaviours of secure throughput and delay with the common transmission
range rn and the probability of neighboring nodes with having a primary security
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
87
association were quantified when the network size n was sufficiently large. The costs
and benefits of secure-link-augmentation operations on the secure throughput and
delay were also analyzed. In general, security has a cost: Since they require all the
communications operate on secure links, there was a degradation in the network
performance when pf <; 1. This implies that even when the pf goes to zero as the
network size becomes arbitrarily large, it was still possible to build throughput-order-
optimal secure WANETs, This is of practical interest since pf was very small in many
practical large-scale WANETs.
Ad-hoc m-commerce was an emerging method for conducting online trading
wirelessly within dynamic network communities. Osman and Taylor., 2011 authors
presented a scheme for identity support using PGP certificates in a fully self-
organised manner, where a trading pseudonym and photograph were used as identity
credentials. It let’s participating parties collaborate in a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) way to
establish their online identity in such a manner that was resistant to such attacks
without any mediation of a Certification Authority (CA). It also allowed the
participating parties handle the security settings of the trading system as well as share
knowledge about fellow participants' trading behaviour without relying on support
from a network service provider.
McNerney and Ning Zhang.,2011 investigated whether a single path should
be sought using a reservation-based or a non-reservation-based approach. They
compared INSIGNIA, an adaptive, reservation-based approach to QoS in MANETs,
with Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), a best-effort MANET routing protocol, using
simulation. The performance of these two approaches was evaluated in the presence
of a variable number of malicious nodes executing blackhole and grayhole data packet
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
88
forwarding attacks and a denial of QoS request attack. These findings indicated that
under certain conditions, e.g., when the network traffic level was high and the threat
level was medium-to-high, INSIGNIA's single-path adaptation mechanism was no
longer sufficient. Instead an adaptive multi-path routing may help in achieving better
QoS support.
According to identity-based cryptography, threshold sharing scheme and
mapping point algorithm, Hongru Wei, Chao Qi.,2011 presented a new Ad-hoc
network security model and verified its safety. Safe mode without third party KGC
includes sharing scheme, communication threshold key process of decrypted and
signature verification.
Quansheng Guan et al., 2011 proposed a topology control scheme to improve
throughput by jointly designing upper layer security schemes and physical layer
schemes related to channel conditions and relay selections for cooperative
communications.
Salmanian et al., 2011 considered nodes in multiple groups using the same
channel (one interface) and a hierarchical traffic pattern typical of a tactical operation.
They showed that the inter-group SAs, between group heads, require a different trust
model than that of intra-group SAs if the overhead of authentication was to be kept
manageable. They formed a new trust model, apply it to the group heads and adapted
their SA duration to their hopped distance away from their authenticators. Their
results showed that for group heads, the number of hops was found to be a more
effective parameter to which their SA duration should be adapted than their actual
link distance modelled by FER.
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
89
To obtain the optimal scheme of combining continuous user authentication
and IDSs in a distributed manner, they formulated the problem as a partially
observable Markov decision process (POMDP) multi-armed bandit problem.
Shengrong Bu et al.,2011 presented a structural result method to solve the problem for
a large network with a variety of nodes. The policies derived from structural results
were easy to implement in practical MANETs.
Multimodal biometric technology provides potential solutions for continuous
user-to-device authentication in high-security mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs).
Shengrong Bu et al.,2011 studied the distributed combined authentication and
intrusion detection with data fusion in such MANETs. Multimodal biometrics were
deployed to work with intrusion detection systems (IDSs) to alleviate the
shortcomings of unimodal biometric systems. The system decided whether user
authentication (or IDS input) was required and which biosensors (or IDSs) should be
chosen, depending on the security posture.
MANET poses a number of security challenges due to changeable topology,
wireless shared medium, diverse resources and inflexible resource constraints etc.
Ghosh et al., 2011 presented an elaborate view of issues of MANET with an emphasis
on security challenges in reactive protocol with different dimensions such as secure
routing, secured key management and trust management through reputation in order
to detect intrusion and protect.
Younchan Jung and Atwood.,2011 proposed a key agreement scheme that
could be realized by encrypting mobile traffic with the agreed secret session key.
They also proposed a key control device (KCD) that could legally listen to any
session call. The key agreement process forces a pair of call participants to calculate
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
90
the Diffie-Hellman session key just before a call session begins. It starts by sending
an SMS message for announcing its temporary IP address (TIP) and `nonce' from the
caller to the callee, so that the callee may learn the caller's TIP immediately at the
beginning of each call and send a `GET/nonce' command in an HTTP request line to
perform the Diffie-Hellman public key exchanges with the caller. In the proposed
security control, one of the call pair was designated to report call information so that
the KCD may compute the same secret session key as the call pair agree.
Abdelhaq et al.,2011 proposed a Local Intrusion Detection (LID) security
routing mechanism to detect Black Hole Attack (BHA) over Ad-hoc On Demand
Distance Vector (AODV) MANET routing protocol. In LID security routing
mechanism, the detection of intrusion was performed locally using the previous node
of the attacker node, instead of doing it via the source node as in Source Intrusion
Detection (SID) security routing mechanism. By performing LID security routing
mechanism, the security mechanism overhead would be decreased.
Based on the current researches on Ad-hoc Networks, a Cluster security model
has been proposed for Ad-hoc networks in theis study, which is authorized by user or
validated by the cluster headers in other clusters. Junlin Li et al.,2010 described the
cluster formation, the selection of the head of clusters and design ideas of this Cluster
security model.
Miede et al., 2010 proposed a generic metamodel for IT security capturing
both its major concepts and their relationships to each other. With a focus on attacks,
they demonstrated how this model was applied to different scenarios in distributed
systems, i.e., Peer-to-Peer systems, Service-oriented Architectures, and Mobile ad-hoc
Networks. This allowed for a better understanding of IT security in general and
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.
91
attacks in particular, thus, enabling effective communication between different parties
during the development of security-critical IT systems.
Secure routing protocol attracts much more attention in mobile ad-hoc
networks for the purposes of secure data transmission. But the improvement of
security often sacrifices the delivery rate or other QoS. Minghu Wu et al.,2010
proposed a secure routing protocol by integrating multipath routing and secret
sharing, Selecting efficient and securing multiple disjoint routes were done by
integrating multiple metrics including hop count, traffic load, node compromising and
broken probability. This proved to be an effective mechanism proved to be in
protecting data security and simultaneously enhancing performance efficiency in the
whole transmission process.
In designing security mechanisms for mobile ad-hoc networks, one must
consider the attack variations and also as the characteristics of these attacks that could
be launched against the ad-hoc networks. Mishra et al., 2010 classified several
common attacks against the ad-hoc networks routing protocols based upon the
techniques that could be used by attackers to exploit routing messages. Some of those
techniques were modification, interception, fabrication, and interruption.
3.3 SUMMARY
This chapter gives a brief review about the quality of service and security
issues in MANET. Reviews of routing, importance of security, problems faced in
MANET by various dimensions were discussed in this chapter.
Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.