Chapter 3: How Can I Chapter 3: How Can I Know What is Right?Know What is Right?

IntroductionIntroduction Ethical skeptics Ethical skeptics – doubt whether there is – doubt whether there is

such a thing as moral truthsuch a thing as moral truth Ethical relativists Ethical relativists – deny that there are – deny that there are

any universally valid moral principlesany universally valid moral principles Ethical absolutists Ethical absolutists – claim there are – claim there are

moral absolutesmoral absolutes Teleological ethical theories Teleological ethical theories – –

consequences determine the rightness of consequences determine the rightness of an actionan action

Deontological ethical theoriesDeontological ethical theories – – advocate doing what is good regardless of advocate doing what is good regardless of the consequencesthe consequences

Kant and the Categorical Kant and the Categorical ImperativeImperative

Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804)Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) Published Published The Critique of Pure The Critique of Pure

Reason, Reason, which revolutionized which revolutionized western philosophywestern philosophy

Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Groundwork of the Metaphysics of MoralsMorals

Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant Good will is the only thing that can Good will is the only thing that can

be conceived as good without be conceived as good without qualificationqualification

Action of duty has moral worth not in Action of duty has moral worth not in the purpose to be attained, but by the purpose to be attained, but by the principle of volition irrespective the principle of volition irrespective of desireof desire

Duty is the necessity to act out of Duty is the necessity to act out of reverence for the lawreverence for the law

Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Groundwork of the Metaphysics of MoralsMorals

Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant

The Categorical ImperativeThe Categorical Imperative ““I ought never to act except in such a I ought never to act except in such a

way that I can also will that my maxim way that I can also will that my maxim should become a universal law.”should become a universal law.”

UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) proposed Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) proposed the ethical theory of utilitarianismthe ethical theory of utilitarianism

Utilitariansim Utilitariansim – teleological theory that – teleological theory that what makes an action right are its what makes an action right are its consequencesconsequences

John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873)- “The John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873)- “The greatest happiness for the greatest greatest happiness for the greatest number”number”

Hedonism Hedonism – the highest good is – the highest good is pleasurepleasure

What Utilitarianism IsWhat Utilitarianism IsJohn Stuart MillJohn Stuart Mill

Actions are right in proportion to Actions are right in proportion to their promotion of happiness and their promotion of happiness and wrong as they tend to produce painwrong as they tend to produce pain

The ultimate sanction of utility is The ultimate sanction of utility is subjective– the conscientious feeling subjective– the conscientious feeling of the mindof the mind

Evidence that something is desirable Evidence that something is desirable is that people desire itis that people desire it

Revaluation of ValuesRevaluation of Values

Some relate associate morality with Some relate associate morality with religionreligion

Ethical nihilism Ethical nihilism – idea that there is no – idea that there is no answer to what is rightanswer to what is right

Ethical emotivism Ethical emotivism – claim that moral – claim that moral judgments express the appraiser’s judgments express the appraiser’s attitudes of approval or disapprovalattitudes of approval or disapproval

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900) believed Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900) believed that religion and human reason had failed that religion and human reason had failed to answer what is rightto answer what is right

Beyond Good and EvilBeyond Good and EvilFriedrich NietzscheFriedrich Nietzsche

Criticizes past attempts to Criticizes past attempts to understand morality understand morality

Criticizes morality as defined by Criticizes morality as defined by classes in the social systemclasses in the social system

On the Genealogy of MoralityOn the Genealogy of MoralityFriedrich NietzscheFriedrich Nietzsche

““Good” was not originally “unegoistic actions”, Good” was not originally “unegoistic actions”, but distinction of the noble class as opposed to but distinction of the noble class as opposed to those who are common, vulgar, or “bad”those who are common, vulgar, or “bad”

Slave revolt in moralitySlave revolt in morality Inversion of the aristocratic value equation by the Inversion of the aristocratic value equation by the

JewsJews Ressentiment – recover losses through imaginary Ressentiment – recover losses through imaginary

revengerevenge The good is those who are powerless, sick, poor, The good is those who are powerless, sick, poor,

etc.etc. ??????????????????????????????????????????????????

The Ethic of CareThe Ethic of Care

Carol Gilligan proposed that there is Carol Gilligan proposed that there is a distinction between male and a distinction between male and female concepts of moralityfemale concepts of morality

While men emphasize reciprocity in While men emphasize reciprocity in relationships, women emphasize relationships, women emphasize response, such as care, love, and response, such as care, love, and trust, etc. trust, etc.

CaringCaringNel NoddingsNel Noddings

Natural and ethical caringNatural and ethical caring ““I must” and “I want”I must” and “I want”

ObligationObligation Moral imperativeMoral imperative Dependent upon relationshipDependent upon relationship

Right and WrongRight and Wrong Problem of JustificationProblem of Justification Women and Morality: VirtueWomen and Morality: Virtue

Moral RelativismMoral Relativism

Is there a balance between a moral Is there a balance between a moral relativism that holds all human relativism that holds all human actions as equal in moral worth and a actions as equal in moral worth and a moral universalism or absolutism moral universalism or absolutism that holds to one set of moral that holds to one set of moral values?values?

David Wong attempts to find this David Wong attempts to find this middle groundmiddle ground

RelativismRelativismDavid WongDavid Wong

Meta-Ethical Relativism – the doctrine of Meta-Ethical Relativism – the doctrine of relativity of moral truth and justifiabilityrelativity of moral truth and justifiability

Normative Relativism – one should never Normative Relativism – one should never pass judgment on others with different pass judgment on others with different values or try to conform them to one’s ownvalues or try to conform them to one’s own

Wong proposes a middle ground of Wong proposes a middle ground of not holding to one single morality without not holding to one single morality without

denying that some moralities might be false or denying that some moralities might be false or inadequateinadequate

Allowing to pass judgment on significantly Allowing to pass judgment on significantly different valuesdifferent values