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State of Israel established.1948

Egypt‘s President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal.

1956

Iran-Iraq War begins.1980

Israel‘s prime minister Yitzhak Rabin is assassinated.

1995

20001972 1944

24C h a p t e r

1945–Present

The Middle East

> Nationalism The cold war andrival nationalisms affect the politicsof the Middle East. Section 1

> Cooperation Middle Easternnations take steps toward peaceafter years of conflict. Section 2

> Cultural Diffusion Middle Easterncountries search for a reconciliationbetween traditional and modernvalues. Section 3

SThetoryteller

In the fall of 1993, a remarkable event occurred that, to

many people, seemed like a miracle. Yitzhak Rabin, the prime

minister of Israel, and Yasir Arafat, the chairman of the Pales-

tine Liberation Organization (PLO) signed an agreement to end

the decades-long conflict between Israel and the Palestinian

Arabs.

In 1995 Rabin’s assassination stunned Israel and the

world, revealing that the quest for peace is often an uphill strug-

gle marked by tragedy. Since 1945 the Middle East has shown

itself to be a complex region where violence has been a constant

feature of life but where hopes for peace remain unquenchable.

How have Middle Eastern developments affected worldaffairs since 1945? What steps have the nations of the MiddleEast taken to resolve their differences?

Historical Significance

724

Chapter Themes

Chapter 24 The Middle East 725

Create an illustrated time line ofconflicts and peace conferences or accordsin the Middle East beginning in 1948and ending at the present. Illustrate yourtime line with symbols of peace and war.

Your History Journal

Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) is Turkey’s largest cityand one of the busiest ports in the Middle East.History

Visualizing

Chapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at world history.me.glencoe.com and clickon Chapter 24—Chapter Overview to previewthe chapter.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/chapter24/overview.html

I n the decades after World War II, nation-alist movements took hold in the MiddleEast. For more than 20 years, GreatBritain and France had governed much of the areaunder the terms of post–World War I agreements.Gradually the presence of foreign officials andtroops on Middle Eastern soil revived the desire forindependence, as it did in Asia and Africa.

While most Middle Eastern countries shook offEuropean control in the postwar years, foreigninfluence in the region remained strong. With itsvaluable waterways and oil reserves, the MiddleEast became the scene of superpower maneuveringfor influence during the cold war.

Arab IndependenceSeveral Arab countries, such as Egypt and

Iraq, had achieved independence before World WarII. During the 1940s, other European-ruled Arabterritories followed. The Mediterranean coastallands of Lebanon and Syria won their freedomfrom France. In Lebanon, Christian and Muslimleaders agreed to share power under a new consti-tution, while Syria elected its first parliamentarygovernment. The largely desert kingdom ofTransjordan (present-day Jordan) gained its inde-pendence from Great Britain. In all of these newstates, however, Western influences remainedstrong after independence.

As independent Arab states emerged, Pan-Arabism, a movement aimed at building clos-er cultural and political ties among Arabs, grewstronger, especially among the educated urbanmiddle class. In 1945, leaders of Egypt, Iraq,Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, andYemen formed the Arab League. Its mission was tounify the Arab world.

726 Chapter 24 The Middle East

Israel and Arab statesfight first conflict. 1948 Iran nationalizes foreign-

owned oil industries.1951 Political crisis

engulfs Lebanon.1958

1945 19651955

In spite of the separate living arrangements,members of a kibbutz family do not becomestrangers to one another.… Kibbutz parents spenda great deal of their free time with their children.…Parents and children enjoy each other all the more

when they meet just for fun andcompanionship. Kibbutz-niks[residents of a kibbutz] takegood care of their elderly par-ents, too. There is less frictionamong kibbutz grandparents,parents, and children.… Thereis less divorce—fewer marriageproblems.

—adapted from Israel Today,Harry Essrig and AbrahamSegal, 1977

S e c t i o n 1

Nationalism in the Middle East

SThetoryteller

Children in akibbutz

> Terms to DefinePan-Arabism, kibbutzim, nationalize,pact

> People to MeetDavid Ben-Gurion, Gamal AbdelNasser, Hussein I, Mohammad RezaPahlavi, Mohammad Mossadeg

> Places to LocateEgypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Israel, SuezCanal, Turkey, Iran

Read to Find Out Main Idea Nationalism helped to estab-lish independent nations and create conflictin the Middle East after World War II.

Formation of IsraelBy 1947, Palestine remained the only significant

European-ruled territory in the region. Arabs, whohad lived in Palestine for centuries, wanted theBritish to honor their promise of freedom made inthe early 1900s. Zionist Jews wanted to build aJewish state on the same land—land that theirancestors had claimed since Biblical times and thatthe British had also promised to them.

The Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Europe hadboosted support in Western countries for theZionist movement. Fearing that the British wouldallow increased Jewish immigration, Arabs inPalestine increased attacks on Jewish settlers. Manyof Palestine’s Jews lived on kibbutzim, or collectivefarms, where they struggled to turn swamps andboulder-strewn hillsides into productive farms. Todefend themselves, Jewish settlements relied on amilitary force called the Haganah. Meanwhile,Jewish underground forces carried out attacks onBritish soldiers and Palestinian Arabs. As hostilitiesmounted, Great Britain admitted its inability tokeep the peace and turned Palestine over to theUnited Nations in 1947.

For months, world leaders debated the futureof Palestine. The United States, the Soviet Union,and much of the West wanted to divide Palestineinto a Jewish and an Arab state. Arab nations, alongwith several European and Pacific nations, rejectedthe idea and called for a single Palestinian state. OnNovember 29, 1947, the General Assembly voted topartition Palestine and to place Jerusalem underUN control.

Jewish leaders were quick to accept the UNpartition plan, while embittered Arab leaders reject-ed it. Great Britain relinquished control of Palestineon May 14, 1948, as Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion proclaimed the new state of Israel. Within24 hours, the armies of Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Egypt,and Transjordan attacked the new Jewish state.With foreign aid and effective civilian and militaryorganization, the Israelis defeated the Arab forcesin nine months.

When the fighting ended in early 1949, Israelheld more territory. Jerusalem was divided, withthe eastern part of the city in Arab hands.Transjordan annexed East Jerusalem and the WestBank of the Jordan River. Egypt held the Gaza Strip.The war was a resounding victory for Israel. To theArabs, the war spelled disaster. As a result of parti-tion, more than 700,000 Palestinians became home-less. Many fled to neighboring Arab lands, where alarge number settled in refugee camps hoping toeventually return home.

Arab UnityThe 1948–1949 war had other serious conse-

quences for the Arab world. In Egypt, many peopleblamed rich, corrupt King Farouk for the Arabdefeat and the country’s weak economy. In 1952army officers seized control of the government andproclaimed a republic. Within a year, ColonelGamal Abdel Nasser, a leader of the coup, tookover as president.

Nasser profoundly disliked Western influencein the Middle East, and quickly launched new poli-cies through which he hoped Egypt would lead theArab world to greatness. In an extremely popularmove, Nasser broke up the estates of wealthyEgyptian landowners and gave plots of land to thepeasants. Then he negotiated the British withdraw-al from the Suez Canal. Finally, he set out to mod-ernize Egypt and build up its military muscle toconfront Israel.

The Suez CrisisNasser wanted to help Egypt by building a dam

at Aswan in the Upper Nile River valley. Known asthe Aswan High Dam, the massive structure—36stories high and more than 2 miles (3 km) wide—would end flooding, increase irrigation, and givefarmers two extra harvests a year. Electricity gener-ated by the dam would power new industries.

Seeking political influence, the United Statesoffered Egypt a $270 million loan to build the dam.However, Nasser also wanted weapons to modern-ize his army, but the West refused to sell arms tohim. Nasser then made an arms deal with theSoviets. This caused the United States to angrily


Despite British restrictions on immi-gration, Jews aboard the Exodus tried

to migrate to Palestine in 1947. Why did Great Britainturn Palestine over to the United Nations in 1947?

HistoryVisualizing

withdraw its offer. In July 1956 Nasser retaliatedagainst the Western powers by nationalizing, orbringing under government control, the SuezCanal. He vowed to use millions of dollars in canalfees to finance the building of the dam.

President Eisenhower was opposed to Westernintervention, and the United States tried to negotiatean end to the crisis. Great Britain and France, how-ever, feared that Nasser might close the canal and cutoff shipments of oil between the Middle East andWestern Europe. In October, the two European pow-ers joined Israel in invading Egypt. Great Britain and

France hoped to overthrow Nasser and seize thecanal. Israel wanted to end Egyptian guerrillaattacks on its borders. The United States immediate-ly sponsored a United Nations resolution calling forBritish and French withdrawal from Egypt. TheRussians threatened rocket attacks on British andFrench cities. Eisenhower, opposed to Soviet inter-ference, put the Strategic Air Command on alert. Inface of this pressure, the three nations pulled out ofEgypt. United Nations forces were sent to patrol theEgyptian-Israeli border. Nasser then accepted theSoviet offer to build the Aswan High Dam.


Cairo

Jerusalem

Beirut Damascus

Amman

Baghdad

Manama

DohaMuscat

San‘a

Abu Dhabi

Riyadh

Kuwait

Ankara

Tehran

EGYPT

YEMEN

SAUDIARABIA

UNITED ARABEMIRATES

OMAN

QATAR

BAHRAIN

KUWAIT

IRAQIRAN

JORDAN

ISRAELLEBANON

SYRIA

Golan Heights

West BankGaza Strip

SINAIPENINSULA

TURKEY

N

E

S

W

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection

0 200

200

400 mi.

0 400 km

Disputed boundaryUndefined boundary Arabian

SeaNile River

Red

Sea

CaspianSea

Persian Gulf

MediterraneanSea

Black Sea

of Horm u z

Strait

The Middle East

Middle Eastern politics are directly affected by the region’s location and resources.Region Why do you think the Strait of Hormuz is of crucial importance to the United States, Western Europe, Japan, and other parts of the world?

MapStudy

30°E 50°E

40°N

20°N

Arab NationalismNasser emerged from the Suez crisis as a pow-

erful Arab leader. He had embarrassed GreatBritain and France, won control of the Suez Canal,and had stopped Israel from taking more territory.Pro-Nasser parties began forming throughout theArab world. It seemed that Nasser might rise tolead a unified Arab world.

In early 1958 Syria and Egypt merged to form aNasser-led state called the United Arab Republic(UAR). The union lasted about three years. At thatpoint, Syrian leaders had grown resentful of the lossof their power, and Syria withdrew from the UAR.

That same year, Nasser’s brand of Arab nation-alism seemed to be taking hold in Iraq. There, KingFaisal II, Nasser’s strongest Arab opponent and afriend of the West, was killed by radical politicaland military forces who set up a one-party regimelike Nasser’s and broke ties with the West.

In the face of pro-Nasser pressure, some Arableaders turned to the West for support. Jordan’sHussein I asked for British and American help whenpro-Nasser forces threatened his government. InLebanon, violence broke out between the Christians,who dominated the nation, and a huge Muslim pop-ulation that sympathized with Nasser and the UAR.Christian President Camille Chamoun, a supporterof the West, sought election to a new term. Anti-Western elements revolted, and a civil war followed.Chamoun asked for Western help to stop the vio-lence. At first, Eisenhower refused. However, whenan unexpected coup overthrew the government ofIraq, Eisenhower decided to uphold political stabilityin the region. He sent 15,000 Marines to Lebanon inJuly 1958. When order was restored that fall, thetroops pulled out.

By 1960 Arab nationalism had made gains, butthe Middle East was in a state of uncertainty. Afragile truce held between Arabs and Israelis; com-peting Arab groups were at an impasse; and neithersuperpower had managed to achieve dominance inthe region.

Pro-Western TierTwo other Middle Eastern countries, Turkey

and Iran, experienced the upheaval of nationalismand rapid modernization. Both bordered the SovietUnion, making them pawns in cold war struggles.

TurkeyAt the end of World War II, Turkey received

American aid to modernize its economy and toward off Soviet advances. During the 1950s, theTurks joined NATO and the Baghdad Pact, alliancesaimed at blocking Soviet expansion. Turkey alsomade strides toward democracy, encouraged for-eign investment, and strengthened its capitalisteconomy. By the 1960s, however, government cor-ruption, inflation, and a huge international debtdiscredited Turkey’s ruling politicians andincreased the political influence of the military.

IranBy contrast, Western influence in oil-rich Iran

was shaken after World War II. The young shah,Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, relied on Western helpto block Soviet influence. Many Iranian people,however, resented the West. For decades, the Britishhad grown rich on Iranian oil at Iran’s expense.

In 1951, a wealthy politician, MohammadMossadeg, became prime minister. He nationalizedthe British-owned oil industry and declared that alloil money would be used for social and economicreforms. Great Britain called for a world boycott ofIranian oil. As Iranians began to suffer, their hatredof the West and the shah grew.

In 1953 growing support for Mossadeg forcedthe shah to flee the country. He returned after a mil-itary coup—promoted by the United States—deposed Mossadeg. The shah increased his ties tothe United States and signed the Baghdad Pact. Apact is a treaty between two or more nations. Healso signed an agreement with Western oil compa-nies. The shah was firmly in control by the 1960s.


Main Idea1. Use a web diagram like the one

below to identify effects ofnationalism in the Middle Eastafter World War II.

Recall2. Define Pan-Arabism,

kibbutzim, nationalize, pact.3. Identify David Ben-Gurion,

Gamal Abdel Nasser, UnitedArab Republic, Hussein I,Mohammad Reza Pahlavi,Mohammad Mossadeg.

Critical Thinking4. Applying Information How

did the Holocaust contribute tothe development of Israel?

Understanding Themes5. Nationalism How was Nasser

viewed by the Arab world afterhe nationalized the Suez Canal?

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT

Effects ofNationalism

F rom the 1960s to the 1990s, many sweep-ing changes came to the Middle East.Wars broke out between various nationsand groups in the region, but hopes for peace werealso high, especially in the early 1990s.

As the 1960s opened, the most bitter dispute wasbetween Israel and its Arab neighbors, especially thePalestinians. In their struggle for nationhood, thePalestinians in 1964 formed the Palestine LiberationOrganization (PLO) to eliminate Israel and to create aPalestinian state. Later, however, many Palestiniansand Israelis favored a two-state solution: a state forIsraelis and a state for Palestinians.

Arab-Israeli ConflictThe cease-fire between Israel and its Arab

neighbors fell apart during the 1960s. A new radicalregime in Syria sought the end of Israel and the cre-ation of an Arab Palestine. Syrian and Israeli troopsengaged in border clashes in early 1967. Egypt’sPresident Nasser aided Syria by closing the Gulf ofAqaba to Israel and by having United Nationsforces removed from the Israeli-Egyptian border.

Six-Day WarFearing possible attack, Israel responded with

force on June 5, 1967. At 8:45 A.M., Israeli fighter jetsbore down on 17 Egyptian airfields, destroying 300of Egypt’s 350 warplanes. Hundreds of miles away,Israeli jets also demolished the air forces of Iraq,Jordan, and Syria. Israeli land troops invaded partsof Egypt and Syria. The war ended on June 11.

In the Six-Day War, Israeli forces tripled Israel’sland holdings, seizing the Sinai Peninsula and theGaza Strip from Egypt, and the Golan Heights


Israel and Arab nations fight Six-Day War.

1967 Israelis and Palestinians agree to end their conflicts.

1993 Iraq invades Kuwait. 1990 Revolution establishes

Islamic republic in Iran. 1979

1965 1975 19951985

When Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi wasoverthrown in 1979, Iran had male tailors fitting

women’s clothes and male teachersin girls’ classrooms. The revolu-tionaries, however, refused toallow unrelated men and womento work closely together. Theresult: many more job opportuni-ties for women. In the media, forexample, the need for women tocover women’s sports opened jobsfor directors and reporters.

—adapted from Nine Parts ofDesire, The Hidden World of IslamicWomen, Geraldine Brooks, 1995

S e c t i o n 2

War and Peace in the Middle East

SThetoryteller

Shah MohammadReza Pahlavi

> Terms to Definedisengagement, cartel, intifada, embargo

> People to MeetYasir Arafat, Anwar el-Sadat, Menachem Begin, Hosni Mubarak,Yitzhak Rabin, Shimon Peres, EhudBarak, Abdullah II, Ayatollah RuhollahKhomeini, Saddam Hussein

> Places to LocateGaza Strip, Golan Heights, West Bank,Beirut, Strait of Hormuz, Kuwait

Read to Find Out Main Idea Since the mid-1960s, issues ofpeace and war in the Middle East have beendecided both violently and diplomatically.

from Syria. When Jordan entered the war, Israelitroops also took East Jerusalem.

In a move that spawned decades of upheaval,Israel occupied the West Bank of the Jordan River.The West Bank was land that had been designated aspart of Arab Palestine in the United Nations partitionplan in 1947. Palestinian Arabs had never achievedself-rule, however; they had been under Jordanianrule ever since 1949, when Jordan annexed the WestBank. Now, as a result of the Six-Day War, the area’smore than 1 million Palestinians found themselvesunder Israeli military occupation.

Thousands more Palestinians fled to neighbor-ing countries such as Lebanon. They turned morethan ever to the PLO and its militant leader, YasirArafat, who vowed to use armed struggle to estab-lish a Palestinian state.

The United Nations asked Israel to pull out ofoccupied territories and asked Arab nations to recog-nize Israel’s right to exist. Both sides refused. Terroristattacks and border raids continued for many years.

Oil and ConflictNasser died in 1970. His successor, President

Anwar el-Sadat, led Arab forces in a new waragainst Israel. On October 6, 1973, Egyptian andSyrian forces launched a surprise attack on Israelimilitary positions on the Jewish holy day of YomKippur and during the Muslim holy month ofRamadan. In early battles, many Israeli planes wereshot down. Egyptian troops crossed over into theSinai, and Syria moved into the Golan Heights.With an American airlift of weapons, Israel struckback. Israeli troops crossed the Suez Canal andoccupied Egyptian territory. The fighting rageduntil the UN negotiated a cease-fire. Secretary ofState Henry Kissinger negotiated a disengagement,or military withdrawal, agreement in early 1974.

American support of Israel during the 1973 warangered Arab countries. Attempting to halt Westernsupport, Arab oil countries imposed an embargo onoil sales to Israel’s allies in 1973. Additional pres-sure came from the Organization of PetroleumExporting Countries (OPEC), a cartel, or group ofbusinesses formed to regulate production andprices among its members. OPEC, which includedArab and non-Arab oil producers, quadrupled theprice of oil. However, the embargo threatened suchdire economic problems for the world, includingArab countries, that it was lifted in 1974.

The Camp David AccordsIn 1977, Egypt’s President Sadat acted inde-

pendently to break the deadlock. He accepted aninvitation to visit Israel, becoming the first Arab

leader to step in peace on Israeli soil. In a speechbefore Israel’s parliament, Sadat called for Arabacceptance of Israel, a just solution to thePalestinian problem, and an end to hostilities be-tween Israelis and Arabs.

The next year Sadat accepted an invitation fromUnited States President Jimmy Carter to meet with Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin(BAY•gihn). The 12 days of meetings at CampDavid in Maryland resulted in the Camp DavidAccords, the basis for an Arab-Israeli peace treaty.

Sadat and Begin signed the treaty in March1979—the first time an Arab nation recognizedIsrael’s right to exist. In return, Israel gave up theSinai Peninsula. Many nations applauded Sadat’sactions, but several Arab states broke ties withEgypt. Sadat’s separate peace with Israel, they said,threatened Arab unity.

In 1981 Muslim extremists assassinated Sadat,and Hosni Mubarak succeeded him as president.Mubarak supported Egypt’s peace with Israel butalso worked to improve Egypt’s relations withother Arab nations in the region. At home, he facedeconomic pressures caused by Egypt’s soaring pop-ulation and lack of resources. Another challenge toMubarak came from a growing opposition move-ment led by Islamicist groups that wanted to endWestern influences in Egypt.


Yasir Arafat became chairman of thePalestine Liberation Organization

(PLO) in 1969. He is now president of the PalestinianAuthority. Why was the PLO formed?

HistoryVisualizing

The Palestinian IssueFor 20 years after the 1967 war, Arabs and

Israelis could not agree on the future of the WestBank and Gaza Strip. Resenting Israeli rule,Palestinians lived in a smoldering rage. Most couldget only low-paying jobs; those who protestedcould be arrested. During this time, the PLO stagedhijackings and bombings in Israel and in foreigncountries.

In 1987 the Palestinians carried out an intifada,or uprising, against the Israelis. The uprising spreadfrom the Gaza Strip to the West Bank. Workers wenton strike, and protesters hurled stones at Israeli soldiers and civilians. The intifada focused worldattention on the Palestinian issue.

In 1988 the PLO’s leader Arafat stated that hewould renounce terrorism and accept Israel’s rightto exist. However, believing that Arafat would notbe true to his word, Israel refused to hold talks withthe PLO and to halt the growth of Jewish settle-ments in the West Bank.

The Peace Process Despite continuing tensions in the Middle East,

the United States pressed the Arabs and Israelis tohold peace talks beginning in 1991 in Madrid,Spain. The Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin(YIHT•zahk rah•BEEN), elected in 1992, agreed inprinciple to exchange some of the occupied land forsecurity guarantees and to accept self-rule by thePalestinians. Many Arab leaders also showed a newflexibility in their positions.

In 1993, Israel and the PLO recognized eachother and agreed to eventual self-rule forPalestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.The Israelis also stated they would gradually with-draw militarily from both areas. By mid-1996, thePalestinians had gained significant self-rule withYasir Arafat as their first president.

The peace process also reached out to Israel’sArab neighbors: Jordan and Syria. In 1994, Israeland Jordan signed a peace treaty, the first suchagreement between Israel and an Arab countrysince the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty of 1979. Syria

of theof the

Living in theMiddle East

Daily life in the Middle Easttoday is a blend of modern andtraditional ways as well asurban and rurallifestyles.

732

Beirut,Lebanon, isrebuilding its neigh-borhoods after a long peri-od of civil war.

Jiddah, Saudi Arabia, is amodern port city on the Red Seathat has prospered from thecountry’s oil wealth.

and Israel began talks, but a major obstacle betweenthem was the future status of the Golan Heights,occupied by Israel since the 1967 war.

Increased TensionsAlthough many Israelis and Palestinians sup-

ported the peace process, a large number on bothsides opposed it. Some Palestinians feared thatpeace would lead to a less-than-independentPalestinian state subject to Israeli restrictions.Israeli opponents of the process feared that a self-governing Palestinian state could threaten Israel.

Unexpectedly, in November 1995, Rabin wasshot to death by an Israeli student who opposed thepeace process. Rabin’s successor, Shimon Peres(shee•MOHN PEHR•ehs), pledged to continueefforts toward peace, and Yasir Arafat made thesame commitment. However, events followed thatheightened tensions and hardened positions onboth sides.

Opposed to the peace process, the militantPalestinian group Hamas in early 1996 began a

series of suicide bombings that killed a number ofIsraelis. Shocked by the violence, Israeli voters thatMay narrowly elected Benjamin Netanyahu(neh•tahn•YAH•hoo), leader of the conservativeLikud party, over Peres and the Labor party.

After the Israeli elections, Hamas stepped up itsattacks on Israeli citizens. To keep would-bebombers out of Israeli cities, Netanyahu closed offPalestinian areas from Israel. He refused to carry outpromises to withdraw military forces from remain-ing Palestinian areas (except for the town ofHebron) until the bombings stopped.

During the late 1990s, Israelis feared continuedattacks, while Palestinians protested what they feltwere Israeli efforts to block progress toward theirfreedom. Palestinians especially opposed Jewishsettlements in the West Bank. As turmoil threat-ened, the United States tried to get the two sidestogether.

With the help of Jordan’s King Hussein, talksheld outside of Washington, D.C., in late 1998 final-ly moved the peace process forward. In the Wye

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

1. What impact has oil had on various countriesof the Middle East?

2. What country in the Middle East is rebuildingafter a long period of civil war?

733

The Galilee region of Israel has areas whereswamps and lakes have been drained to create pro-ductive farmlands.

Kuwait on the PersianGulf has an economybased on oil. Anincreasing number ofwomen in the MiddleEast, as in other areas ofthe world, earn univer-sity degrees and work inbusinesses.

River Memorandum, Israel agreed to hand overmore land to the Palestinians, and the Palestiniansagreed to combat terrorism.

Progress seemed to fade, however, whenNetanyahu refused to turn over the agreed-uponland. Another setback was the Jordanian king’sdeath in early 1999.

In May of 1999, Israelis elected a new leader,Ehud Barak. The former chief of staff of the IsraeliDefense Forces, Barak promised to renew the peaceprocess. Jordan’s new King Abdullah II alsopledged to work toward this goal.

LebanonThe Palestinian issue also affected neighboring

Lebanon. In 1975 a civil war broke out betweenLebanon’s Christian and Muslim groups. As theMuslim population grew to outnumber Christians,unrest had spread. Adding to these tensions wasthe presence of armed PLO forces in the country.Most Lebanese Muslims supported the PLO; mostLebanese Christians did not.

As fighting erupted, the weakened Lebanesegovernment asked Syria to send in troops to keep

order. In 1982 the Israelis invaded southernLebanon to wipe out PLO bases housing Israel’sattackers. A multinational peacekeeping force finally arranged a PLO withdrawal to other Arabcountries; however, private armies continued fight-ing among themselves. After foreign troops becamevictims of terrorist bombings, the peacekeepingforce departed by 1985.

In the early 1990s, some signs of hopeappeared. Lebanon agreed to give Muslims anequitable say in the political process, and the vari-ous private armies in Beirut pulled out of the city,which made rapid strides in rebuilding. By themid-1990s, Lebanon had made progress towardstability. Tensions remained, however, and bothSyria and Israel kept troops in the country.

Iran’s RevolutionDuring the 1960s and 1970s, Iran became a

major military power in the Persian Gulf area. ShahMohammad Reza Pahlavi worked to build a mod-ern industrial economy based on oil. Shiite Muslimreligious leaders, however, disliked the influx ofWestern values into Iran and called for a return toMuslim traditions. The shah silenced all protestsand dissent.

In the late 1970s, anti-shah forces rallied aroundAyatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (ko•MAY•nee), apowerful Shiite Muslim leader, living in exile inFrance. Khomeini had long preached the overthrowof the shah and the creation of a republic. ByJanuary 1979, widespread unrest forced the shah toflee Iran. Khomeini returned to form a governmentbased on Islamic laws and traditions.

Iranian hatred for the shah was also directed atthe United States. The Americans had long sup-ported the shah, valuing Iran as a major supplier ofoil and a reliable buffer against Soviet expansion.Anti-American feelings were so strong that onNovember 4, 1979, militants stormed the Americanembassy in Tehran, the capital, and took 52 Ameri-cans hostage. United States President Carter’s effortsto free the hostages were unsuccessful, thus sealinghis defeat in the 1980 presidential election. Onlyafter his successor, Ronald Reagan, was sworn in onJanuary 20, 1981, did Iran release the Americans.

During most of the 1980s, Iran fought a devastat-ing war with neighboring Iraq. The Iraqis first seized a disputed border area and then pushed into Iran. The Iranians, hoping to spread their revolution into Iraq, responded with a fierce counter-attack. The Iraqis had superior weapons and usedpoison gas; the Iranians, however, had more troops.


Israel’s most decorated war hero,Ehud Barak, was elected prime

minister in 1999. What was Barak’s position regarding the peace process?

HistoryVisualizing


This giant portrait of Iraqi President SaddamHussein (left) overlooks a Baghdad street.An inscription under the portrait in redArabic characters praises the Arab forces inIraq’s struggle with its Islamic but non-Arab enemyneighbor, Iran. In Iran the stern gaze of the AyatollahRuhollah Khomeini peers from a mural behindwomen attending the departure of soldiers for the bat-tlefront in September 1988. With his zealous view ofIslam, Khomeini, who died in 1989, regarded the sec-ular Saddam Hussein as both an enemy and an infidel.

The Middle East has changed profoundly sinceWorld War II. What was once an area largely held bythe Ottoman Empire and then by European colonialpowers is now a region of independent nations. Withthe end of imperialism came the rise of nationalism.At the same time parts of the Islamic world have wit-nessed the rise of a fiercely held fundamentalism thatviews the secular world, even the Muslim secularworld, as evil and corrupt. In this context Iran andIraq fought a long and devastating war that lastedfrom 1980 to 1988. �

Mortal Enemies�

PICTURING HISTORY

Steve McCurry, Magnum Mohsen Shandiz, SYGMA

When both sides targeted commercial vessels in thePersian Gulf, the United States sent naval forces toprotect the vital shipping lanes running throughthe Strait of Hormuz. In 1988 Iran and Iraq, bothexhausted, agreed to end the fighting.

After Khomeini’s death a year later, Iran’s lead-ers worked to rebuild Iran’s crippled economy. In1997 a moderate religious leader, MohammadKhatami, became president. Khatami supported areduction in press censorship and closer economicties with the West. Some Iranian leaders, however,opposed Khatami’s liberalization measures. Astruggle between the moderates who supportKhatami and the militant conservatives continuesto preoccupy Iran.

Iraq’s Bid for PowerThe war with Iran left Iraq near collapse and in

debt to its small, but oil-rich, neighbor, Kuwait. InAugust 1990, Iraq’s President Saddam Husseinsent Iraqi forces into Kuwait, claiming that thecountry was a historic part of Iraq. In occupyingKuwait, Hussein also wanted to expand Iraq’sinfluence in the Persian Gulf region.

The Persian Gulf WarFearing an Iraqi attack, oil-rich Saudi Arabia

asked the United States for protection. United

States President George Bush responded by send-ing troops to the Saudi desert. Eight Arab nationsalso sent forces to Saudi Arabia. At the urging of theUN, Western nations, the Soviet Union, and Japanimposed a trade embargo, or a ban on the export ofgoods, against Iraq.

In January 1991, after a UN deadline for anIraqi withdrawal expired, the United States rainedmedium-range missiles on the Iraqi capital ofBaghdad. During the next month, coalition forcesfrom the United States, Great Britain, France, Syria,Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Kuwait conducted a mas-sive air war against Iraq. Iraq responded by launch-ing missiles against Saudi Arabia and Israel. Iraqiforces in Kuwait also set fire to oil fields. When Iraqstill refused to withdraw, coalition land forcesmoved into Iraq and Kuwait, defeating the Iraqisafter a mere 100 hours of fighting. With Kuwaitfreed, a cease-fire went into effect. Allied wardeaths totaled just over 100, with tens of thousandsof Iraqi soldiers believed killed.

Iraq After the WarAfter their victory, coalition forces withdrew

from Iraq. Saddam Hussein, however, remained inpower. He brutally crushed Kurdish and Shiitegroups in Iraq that used the war to rebel against his authority. He also appeared to be rebuilding hisstocks of chemical and biological weapons.

In 1997 a prolonged confrontation with SaddamHussein began after Iraq expelled the Americanmembers of the UN team monitoring Iraq for chem-ical and biological weapons. The following year,Iraq expelled the entire UN monitoring team, inviolation of UN agreements signed after the end ofthe Persian Gulf War.

In 1998 and 1999 the United States and Britainattacked Iraq in an operation known as DesertFox. The purpose of the strikes was to hit militaryand security targets that allow Iraq to produce,store, maintain, and deliver weapons of massdestruction.


Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to summarize the issuesof peace and war in the MiddleEast since the mid-1980s.

Recall2. Define disengagement, cartel,

intifada, embargo.3. Identify Yasir Arafat, Anwar el-

Sadat, Menachem Begin, HosniMubarak, Yitzhak Rabin, ShimonPeres, Ehud Barak, Abdullah II,Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini,Saddam Hussein.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information

How did the Persian Gulf War affect the Middle East?

Understanding Themes5. Cooperation What were the

major points of the 1993 agree-ment between Israel and thePalestinians?

War and theEnvironmentDuring the Persian Gulf War,

Iraqi troops spilled an estimated 250 million gallons(947 million I) of Kuwait’s oil into the PersianGulf. Thousands of birds, fish, and other marinelife perished when the oil spill spread for 350miles (563 km) along the Persian Gulf coastline.


Issues of War and Peace


In the last chapter, you wrote a research reporton some topic of interest. To complete yourreport, you have one more step—preparing abibliography.

Learning the SkillA bibliography is a list of sources used in a

research report. These sources include: books;articles from newspapers, magazines, and jour-nals; interviews; films, videotapes, audiotapes,and compact discs.

There are two main reasons to write a bibli-ography. First, those who read your report maywant to learn more about the topic. Second, a bib-liography supports the reliability of your report.

A bibliography should follow a definite for-mat. The entry for each source must contain allthe information needed to find that source:author, title, publisher information, and publica-tion date. You should have this informationalready on note cards.

In a bibliography, arrange entries alphabeti-cally by the author’s last name. The following are accepted formats for bibliography entries, followed by sample entries.

BooksAuthor’s last name, first name. Full Title. Place

of publication: publisher, copyright date.Holiday, Laurel. Children of Israel, Children of

Palestine: Our Own True Stories. New York:Washington Square Press, 1999.

ArticlesAuthor’s last name, first name. “Title of Article.”

Name of Periodical in which article appears,Volume number (date of issue): page numbers.

Watson, Bruce. “The New Peace Corps in theNew Kazakhstan.” Smithsonian, Vol. 25(August 1994): pp. 26–35.

Other SourcesFor other kinds of sources, adapt the format

for book entries.

Practicing the SkillReview the sample bibliography below for a

report on Mexico. Then answer the questions thatfollow.

Castañeda, Jorge G. The Mexican Shock: ItsMeaning for the United States. New York:The New Press, 1995.

Oppenheimer, Andres. Bordering on Chaos:Mexico’s Roller-Coaster Journey toProsperity. New York, New York, Little,Brown & Co, 1998.

Cockburn, A., “The Fire This Time.” Condé NastTraveller, Vol. 30 (June 1995): pp. 104–113.

Smith, G. “The Brave New World of MexicanPolitics.” Business Week (August 28, 1995)pp. 42–44.

1. Are the bibliography entries in the correctorder? Why or why not?

2. What is wrong with the second book listing?3. What is missing from the second article listing?

Applying the SkillCompile a bibliography for your research

report. Include at least five sources, preferably amix of books and articles. Exchange bibliogra-phies with another student and check each otherfor proper format and arrangement.

For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter

Assessment on page 747 for more practice inpreparing a bibliography.

Preparing a Bibliography

Study and WritingStudy and Writing

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.

T he tragic cycle of violence, warsbetween nations, and civil wars withinnations have brought much suffering tothe people of the Middle East since the end ofWorld War II. Since 1948 Israelis and Arabs havefought four major wars. The civil war in Lebanonlargely destroyed the country and killed andwounded thousands of civilians. Besides the lostlives, billions of dollars of precious resources arespent each year on weapons. If you speak to MiddleEasterners about their hopes for the future, theyconsistently include peace and stability. But peaceand stability have been hard to achieve.

War and PeaceSince Egypt and Israel agreed to peace in 1979,

major steps have been taken in ending the state ofwar between Israel and the rest of the Arab world.In 1993, the Israelis and the Palestinians signed anagreement known as the Oslo Accords. A year later,Jordan and Israel finally ended their conflict.Contacts also began between Israel and Syria forthe settlement of issues related to the Six-Day War.

West Bank and Gaza StripAfter successful peace efforts in the early 1990s,

Israeli-Palestinian relations worsened in 1997.Hamas bombings and the tough position of Israel’sconservative government threatened the peaceprocess. Increasing tensions delayed indefinitelyany resolution of the major issues dividing Israelisand Palestinians. These issues include the timing ofIsraeli military withdrawals from Palestinian areasin the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the status ofJerusalem, and the future of Israeli Jewish settlerson the West Bank. The election of Ehud Barak, how-ever, raised hopes and gave the peace process anew momentum.

Jordan and Israelend their state of war.

1994 Israel and Egyptsign peace treaty. 1979 Arab nations form

the Arab League.1945

1944 20001972

King Hussein ofJordan dies.

1999

An Israeli observer records the expulsion ofArabs from Israeli-held territory: “Masses of peo-ple marched on behind the next. Women bore bun-dles and sacks on their heads; mothers draggedchildren after them. From close up it was sad towatch this trek of thousands going into exile. As

soon as they left thecity, they began todivest themselves ofthings … and theroads were clutteredwith the belongingsthat people had aban-doned to make theirwalk easier.”

—from The People ofNowhere, DannyRubenstein, 1991

S e c t i o n 3

Challenges Facingthe Middle East

SThetoryteller

Palestinian Arabs in exile


> Terms to Definesovereignty, desalination, fundamentalism

> People to MeetShimon Peres, Hafez al-Assad, Benjamin Netanyahu, Golda Meir,Tansu Çiller

> Places to LocateWest Bank, Gaza Strip, Jerusalem,Golan Heights, Saudi Arabia, Cairo,Turkey, Euphrates River

Read to Find Out Main Idea People in the Middle East havehandled the conflict between traditional cultureand modern values in various ways.

Still another major issue is the resettlement ofPalestinians who fled their homes beginning in the1948 Arab-Israeli conflict. Today, more than 6 million Palestinian Arabs live in the Middle East,North Africa, Europe, and the Americas. About 2 million Palestinians live in the West Bank andGaza Strip. In addition, about 850,000 Israeli Arabslive inside Israel itself and try to combine Israeli citizenship with their Arab heritage.

Golan Heights and LebanonRelations between Israel and its northern

neighbor, Syria, also need to improve before a gen-eral peace can be achieved. The Golan Heights,which has been in Israeli hands since 1967, is amajor area of dispute. Israeli Prime MinisterShimon Peres and Syrian President Hafez al-Assad committed themselves to settling this issue,but talks between Israel and Syria were deadlockedafter the election of Israeli Prime MinisterBenjamin Netanyahu in 1996. Three years later,Ehud Barak’s election enabled negotiations toresume.

In neighboring Lebanon, the civil war hasended, and the country is fast rebuilding its econo-my. In the south of Lebanon, Israeli forces hold astrip of land for security purposes. They are opposedby Shiite Muslim guerrillas. Attacks occur repeated-ly between the two sides.

The Elusive DreamUnity among Arab people has long been a

powerful desire. For centuries, people throughoutthe Arab world have shared strong cultural ties,such as language, traditions, religious beliefs, and acommon history. British and French imperialism inthe 1800s and 1900s increased division among theArabs and created numerous states with artificialboundaries. Many Arabs thought that with inde-pendence from foreign powers they would be ableto achieve unity. They began to take steps tostrengthen the common links among them.

In 1945 political unity seemed within reachwhen Egypt, Transjordan (present-day Jordan),Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Yemenformed the Arab League. By 1995 its membershiphad grown to 22 participants (including the PLO),with a population of about 200 million. But disputesamong nations and their unwillingness to give upsovereignty, or independent decision-making pow-ers, blocked moves toward further unity.

Some political leaders and government officials have advocated a cautious move toward


unity. They formed cooperative councils amongtheir countries to coordinate trade, economic devel-opment, and travel. Peoples’ aspirations and politi-cal realities, in time, may lead to some type ofloose union in which each state retains indepen-dence and contributes to stability in the region.

Economic DevelopmentsIn the past 40 years the Middle East has seen

greatly changed economic and social conditions.Light and heavy industry has been developed inmost countries of the region. Irrigation for agricul-ture spread as hydroelectric projects were con-structed on major rivers. At the same time as pro-duction rose and jobs became available, the region’spopulation grew rapidly. If the current rate ofincrease continues, the population will double inthe next 25 years. The increase has been mostapparent in major urban centers. By the year 2000,more than 7 cities had populations exceeding 3 mil-lion each. The largest is Cairo, Egypt’s capital, with12 million people. It is also the largest city on theentire African continent. The needs and the chal-lenges of rapidly growing populations are on theminds of every major leader in the Middle East.

Oil and WaterOil-producing countries of the Middle East

have built wealthy and highly developed societies

Banking and financial services areimportant to the economies of many

Middle Eastern countries. In what other ways haveMiddle Eastern economies changed in the past 40 years?

HistoryVisualizing

CON

NECTIONS

CO

NNE

CTIONS

Compare water technology todaywith that used in the past. What peo-ples relied on the Euphrates in ancienttimes? What lands depend on theEuphrates today? Does Turkey have aright to build dams on the river?

in recent years. The region’s highest per capitaincomes, or the total national incomes divided bythe number of people in each nation, are found inthe Persian Gulf countries. Their prosperity, how-ever, contrasts sharply with the poverty of someother countries in the region. Hoping to lessen thegap between rich and poor nations, oil-producingcountries have invested in and loaned large sums ofmoney to the non-oil producing countries.

Another valuable, but scarce, resource in theMiddle East is water. The region has long had criti-cal water shortages caused by an unequal distribu-tion of water. However, as Middle Eastern coun-tries develop industrially and face population

increases, they are working to meet their waterneeds. For example, Turkey has built dams andother water facilities on the Euphrates River to irri-gate fertile, but dry, areas.

Other countries with water shortages includeIsrael, Syria, and Jordan. If all three countries settletheir political differences, they will be able to coor-dinate their water resources and build plants fordesalination, the removal of salt from seawater tomake it usable for drinking and farming. In 1997Israel and Jordan settled a dispute about the shar-ing of water. At present, both countries are con-structing dams on the Yarmuk River, which servesas part of the Jordanian-Israeli border.

Social ChangeThroughout the Middle East, modernization

has turned traditional societies upside down. Withthe discovery of oil, desert cities bloomed and newindustrial areas were created. Urban areas now contain high-rise offices, shopping centers, andfreeways. Foreign investment has created new jobsand raised living standards. New wealth has led to


Water From the EuphratesLike their ancient ancestors, people in

the Middle East today rely on the EuphratesRiver for water. The technology used for

obtaining the water, however, haschanged considerably over thecenturies. To ensure their watersupply, the people of Turkey todayrely on a series of huge dams onthe Euphrates. The dams’ reser-voirs provide water for Turkey’sexpanding industries and urbancenters.

Turkey’s solution for its waterproblem, however, deprives Syria

and Iraq of water from the same river. Iraqpotentially is the worst off because it is thelast country that is situated along the river.

The Turks claim they need the river tobetter their economy. They hope to turnmore of the Anatolian Peninsula into farm-land. Crops grown there are needed to feed

Turkey’s growing population, they say.Syria and Iraq claim that Turkey does not

own the entire Euphrates River. They pointout that not only will they lose water fromthe reduced flow, but that more will be lost through evaporation from the Turkishreservoirs.

Experts state that this crisis can be easedby all three countries repairing existing equipment, improving irrigation and waterconservation methods, expanding water recycling, and sharing water equitably. Thecountries also need to grow some crops thatdo not require so much water. Above all,experts state that the countries need to better manage their population growth.

Turkish dam on theEuphrates River

Student Web Activity 24

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 24—Student Web Activities for an activity relating to the Euphrates River.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/chapter24/webact.html

better education and health care. In addition,women in the region have made a growing impacton business and politics. In politics, for example,Golda Meir (meh•IHR), who served as Israeliprime minister from 1969 to 1974, was the modernMiddle East’s first female head of government. In the early 1990s Tansu Çiller (TAHN•soosee•LAHR) of Turkey became the first female primeminister to govern a Middle Eastern Muslim country.

ChallengesRapid change in the Middle East also had its neg-

ative side. Crime rose, and the gap between the richand the poor grew. The greater independence of fam-ily members led to a loosening of traditional familyties. The availability of cars, TVs, VCRs, and personalcomputers brought a new materialism to daily life.Many people in the Middle East blamed the West forthe new social trends that they did not like.

Saudi ArabiaIn Saudi Arabia, the birthplace of Islam, most

people have fiercely resisted undesirable Westerncultural influences. For hundreds of years, the landthat is now Saudi Arabia was divided among manytribes. During the early 1900s, these groups joinedtogether under the Saud family to form the king-dom of Saudi Arabia. Beginning in the mid-1900s,the Saudi royal family used income from the oilindustry to support modernization programs.However, the family, despite its conservative poli-cies, faces opposition from traditional Saudis whoresist change. By contrast, more liberal lifestylesprevail in Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Egypt, andIsrael.

A Return to ReligionIn recent years many Middle Easterners have

sought solutions to their problems in fundamental-ism, or adherence to traditional religious values.This development has also occurred, although indifferent ways, in other parts of the world. In the

United States, conservative Protestantism has flour-ished and has expressed itself politically; in India,Hindu nationalists have won much support.

Some observers view fundamentalism as a nat-ural reaction by people who are overwhelmed bymassive change and desire security in long-valuedtraditions. Other experts, however, point out thatthe continued growth of religious fundamentalismdeepens mistrust and hardens divisions at a timewhen the world’s peoples need to develop greaterunderstanding and cooperation.

In the Middle East, the revival of traditional reli-gion has increased the political influence of Islam inmany countries. Since 1979, Shiite Muslim religiousleaders have ruled Iran. In Turkey, Egypt, andJordan, the political power of Islam poses a seriouschallenge to secular forms of government. Israel’sJewish right-wing religious parties, although smallin size, have contributed to the rising strength ofpolitical conservatism and nationalism there.

The most direct confrontation in the MiddleEast between traditional religion and secularismhas occurred in Turkey. In 1996 Necmettin Erbakanbecame Turkey’s first prime minister from anIslamic party. Military leaders, however, sawErbakan’s pro-Islamicist policies as a threat toTurkey’s secular political traditions. They forcedErbakan from power in 1997, and secular politiciansthen formed a new government. Many of the newleaders believe that the country’s Islamic schoolspromote militancy among students. They have proposed a plan that would force the closing ofmany Islamic schools. Islamicist supporters haveprotested this plan as a violation of their religiousfreedom.

Egypt also has seen religious conflict. Since1992, groups in southern Egypt have sought to oustPresident Hosni Mubarak’s secular governmentand establish a government based on Islamic prin-ciples. By 2000, stability seemed to have come toEgypt as the government placed more emphasis oneconomic growth and social well-being.


Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below

to show how Middle Easterncountries dealt with conflictbetween traditionalism andmodernism.

Recall2. Define sovereignty,

desalination, fundamentalism.3. Identify Shimon Peres, Hafez

al-Assad, Benjamin Netanyahu,Arab League, Golda Meir, TansuÇiller.

Critical Thinking4. Applying Information How

has religious fundamentalismimpacted the Middle East?

Understanding Themes5. Cultural Diffusion How

have foreign influences affected modern Middle Eastern society?


Political ResponseTraditionalism vs. Modernism

Religious Response


M odern poets havecontinued to exploreboth universalthemes, such as friendship and loneli-ness, as well as individual preferencesfor a particular place or group of people.

T he following poem was written by one ofMexico’s greatest writers, Jaime TorresBodet, who was born in 1902 and was active in poli-tics. Bodet served the government as an administratorand diplomat. In this poem, Bodet urges people to takerisks in their lives. Bodet died in 1974.

The WindowTranslated from Spanish by George Kearns

You closed the window, And it was the world,the world that wanted to enter, all at once,the world that gave that great shout,that great, deep, rough cryyou did not want to hear—and nowwill never call to you again as it called today,asking your mercy!

The whole of life was in that cry:the wind, the sea, the landwith its poles and its tropics,the unreachable skies,the ripened grain in the resounding wheat field,the thick heat above the wine presses,dawn on the mountains, shadowy woods,parched lips stuck together longing forcool water condensed in pools,and all pleasures, all sufferings,all loves, all hates,were in this day, anxiouslyasking your mercy …

But you were afraid of life,And you remained alone,behind the closed and silent window,not understanding that the world calls to a manonly once that way, and with that kind of cry,with that great, rough, hoarse cry!

ModernPoems

by Jaime Torres Bodet,Nazim Hikmet, and

Gabriel Okara

from


N azim Hikmet, who lived from 1902 to 1963, often criticized the governmentof his native Turkey for serving only the wealthy. In 1951 he left Turkey,never to return, and settled in Europe. His sympathy for the peasants of his country, hislove of nature, and his hope for humanity are all suggested in the following poem.

The World, My Friends, My Enemies,You, and the EarthTranslated from Turkish by Randy Blasing and Mutlu Konuk

I’m wonderfully happy I came into the world,I love its earth, its light, its struggle, and its bread.Even though I know its dimensions from pole to pole to the

centimeter,and while I’m not unaware that it’s a mere toy next to the sun,the world for me is unbelievably big.I would have liked to go around the worldand see the fish, the fruits, and the stars that I haven’t seen.However,I made my European trip only in books and pictures.In all my life I never got one letter

with its blue stamp canceled in Asia.Me and our corner grocer,we’re both mightily unknown in America.Nevertheless,from China to Spain, from the Cape of Good Hope to Alaska,in every nautical mile, in every kilometer, I have friends and

enemies.Such friends that we haven’t met even once—we can die for the same bread, the same freedom, the same dream.And such enemies that they’re thirsty for my blood,

I am thirsty for their blood.My strengthis that I’m not alone in this big world.The world and its people are no secret in my heart,

no mystery in my science.Calmly and openly

I took my placein the great struggle.

And without it,you and the earth

are not enough for me.And yet you are astonishingly beautiful,

the earth is warm and beautiful.

Nazim Hikmet


G abriel Okara, born in 1921, is one of many Nigerian writers to achieve inter-national acclaim since the 1960s. Others include Chinua Achebe,Christopher Okigbo, and Wole Soyinka. Some of Okara’s poems deal with the prob-lems of living in a country that is influenced by European culture. Others deal withfamily, friends, and daily life.

Once Upon a TimeOnce upon a time, son,they used to laugh with their heartsand laugh with their eyes;but now they only laugh with their teeth,while their ice-block-cold eyessearch behind my shadow.

There was a time indeedthey used to shake hands with their hearts;but that’s gone, son.Now they shake hands without heartswhile their left hands searchmy empty pockets.

“Feel at home,” “Come again,”they say, and when I comeagain and feelat home, once, twice,there will be no thrice—for then I find doors shut on me.

So I have learned many things, son.I have learned to wear many faceslike dresses—homeface,officeface, streetface, hostface, cock-tailface, with all their conforming smileslike a fixed portrait smile.

And I have learned, too,to laugh with only my teethand shake hands without my heart.I have also learned to say, “Goodbye,”when I mean, “Good-riddance”;to say “Glad to meet you,”without being glad; and to say “It’s been nice talking to you,” after being bored.


But believe me, son.I want to be what I used to bewhen I was like you. I wantto unlearn all these muting things.Most of all, I want to relearnhow to laugh, for my laugh in the mirrorshows only my teeth like a snake’s bare fangs!

So show me, son,how to laugh; show me howI used to laugh and smileonce upon a time when I was like you.

1. In your own words, define “the great strug-gle” that Hikmet refers to near the end of hispoem.

2. Explain whether you think the poem by Bodetis written just to the people of Mexico orwhether it applies to people throughout the

world.3. What is the main point of the poem by

Okara?4. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment How

does each poet view individuals who are will-ing to act boldly?

RESPONDING TO LITERATURE

National unity has been difficult for Nigeria to achievebecause of its diverse ethnic groups. How does the author

remember his childhood years before strife divided the country?

HistoryVisualizing

Reviewing Facts1. History Use a diagram like the one below to

identify positive and negative effects of mod-ernization in the Middle East.

2. Geography Discuss how geography helpedmake the Middle East a scene of cold war rivalry.

3. History Explain the link between the AswanHigh Dam and the Suez crisis of 1956.

4. History Describe United States President JimmyCarter’s role in improving relations betweenIsrael and Egypt.

5. Geography Explain the importance of the WestBank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights.

6. History Explain why the United States gavesupport to Turkey and to Iran.

7. History State the reasons for Saddam Hussein’sinvasion of Kuwait in 1990.

8. Citizenship Discuss why Iran’s Muslim leadersopposed the rule of the shah.

9. Citizenship Describe the factors that sparkedthe outbreak of the Palestinian intifada.

Critical Thinking1. Evaluate Do you think that terrorism can be

justified as a means of attaining political goals?Why or why not?

Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence. Then write a sentence for each term not chosen.

a. disengagement g. sovereigntyb. nationalized h. Pan-Arabismc. fundamentalism i. pactd. intifada j. desalinatione. kibbutzim k. cartelf. embargo

1. In 1974 United States Secretary of State HenryKissinger negotiated a ______, or military with-drawal, agreement between Egypt and Israel.

2. In the quest for regional unity, some Arabnations refuse to yield their ________ to aninternational body.

3. Some Jewish immigrants to Palestine settled on_________, or collective farms.

4. In recent years, some Middle Easterners havesupported religious ________ in their efforts todefend traditional values and to oppose govern-ments they dislike.

5. In 1987, Palestinians in the West Bank and GazaStrip carried out an ________ to oppose Israelirule of their areas.


CHAPTER 24 ASSESSMENT

Write an essay about an unresolvedMiddle Eastern issue shown on your timeline. Gather information about the issue,consider ways of solving the problems itposes, and evaluate which resolution youbelieve is most effective.

Using Your History Journal

Modernization in

Middle East

Positive Effects Negative Effects

Self-Check Quiz

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 24—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

Using the Internet Use theInternet to search for anon-line newspaper with cur-rent articles about the Middle East. Find a recentarticle pertaining to any news from the MiddleEast. Evaluate your findings by writing a reportthat contains the source of information, title,date, and summary of the article. Include anopinion of whether or not this particular currentevent impacts your life.

Technology Activity

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/quiz.shtml?BOOK=005&CHAPTER=24&TITLE=The+Middle+East

2. Apply How have women’s roles changed in theMiddle East in recent years? Compare the posi-tion of women in the Middle East today withthose of women in other parts of the world.

3. Evaluate To what degree do you think humanrights and democratic government have madeadvances in the Middle East since 1945?

4. Evaluate Saddam Hussein justified Iraq’s inva-sion of Kuwait, in part, on the grounds ofnationalism and Arab unity. Analyze this rea-soning. Do you think it is justified?

Geography in History1. Place Refer to the map below. What country of

the Middle East produced the most oil?2. Location The four main producers of oil in the

Middle East all border what body of water?3. Region What correlation is there between the

size, in area, and the amount of oil produced inthe countries shown?

Understanding Themes1. Nationalism How did the cold war contribute

to the development of the Suez crisis in 1956?2. Cooperation Why can the Camp David

Accords be considered a turning point in thehistory of the modern Middle East?

3. Cultural Diffusion Do you think Saudi Arabia

will succeed in resisting unwanted foreigninfluences while developing its economy andsociety? Explain.

1. When the state of Israel was founded in1948, Israelis and Palestinians were bitterenemies. What was the basic issue thatdivided them in 1948? By 1999, how hadtheir relationship changed? What issuescontinue to divide them?

2. Religion continues to influence life in theMiddle East. What recent developmentsreflect this influence? How have religiousideas and movements shaped events inother parts of the world since World War II?What impact will they have in the future?

Skill PracticeReview the sample bibliography below for a report onthe South American country of Brazil. Then answerthe questions that follow.

Page, Joseph A. The Brazilians. Perseus Press, 1996.McGowan, Chris and Ricardo Pessanha. The

Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova, and thePopular Music of Brazil. Philadelphia: TempleUniversity Press, 1998.

Skidmore, Thomas. Brazil: Five Centuries ofChange. Oxford University Press, 1999.

J. F. Hage, “Fulfilling Brazil’s Promise: aConversation with President Cardoso.”Foreign Affairs, Vol. 74, July–August 1995: pp. 62–75.

Levine, J. “The Dance Drink: Brazil’s Samba SoftDrink to be Marketed in the U.S.” Vol. 154: p. 232.

1. The entries presented above are not listed in thecorrect order. What author do you think shouldbe listed first?

2. What is missing from the Joseph A. Page booklisting?

3. What is wrong and/or missing in the ThomasSkidmore book listing?

4. Rewrite the J. F. Hage article listing correctly.5. What do you think is missing from the J. Levine

listing?


CHAPTER 24 ASSESSMENT

N

E

S

W

10 million metric tons per year

EGYPT

44

TURKEY4

SYRIA

23

IRAN

159

IRAQ

101

KUWAIT60

SAUDIARABIA

320

UNITED ARABEMIRATES

102

Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

0 400

400

800 mi.

0 800 km ArabianSea

Red

Sea

Persian Gulf

MediterraneanSea

Major Oil Producers in the Middle East

World History: The Human Experience, The Modern EraTable of ContentsReference AtlasWorld (Physical)World (Political)United States (Political)Middle America (Physical/Political)North America (Political)South America (Political)Europe (Political)Asia (Political)Oceania (Physical/Political)Africa (Political)Arctic Ocean (Physical)Antarctica (Physical)Pacific Rim (Physical)World (Land Use)Ocean Floor

Historical Atlas and World Data BankGeography HandbookThe Five Themes of GeographyThemes in World HistoryReading for InformationUnit 1: The World Before Modern TimesChapter 1: The Rise of CivilizationsSection 1: Human BeginningsSection 2: Civilizations in Africa and the Middle EastSection 3: Civilizations in Asia and the AmericasChapter 1 Assessment

Chapter 2: The Advance of CivilizationsSection 1: GreeceSection 2: Rome and Early ChristianitySection 3: AfricaSection 4: AsiaSection 5: The AmericasChapter 2 Assessment

Chapter 3: Regional CivilizationsSection 1: Eastern Christian LandsSection 2: Islamic CivilizationSection 3: Early Medieval EuropeSection 4: Asia's Pacific RimChapter 3 Assessment

Chapter 4: Toward a New WorldSection 1: Asian EmpiresSection 2: A New EuropeSection 3: African Kingdoms and City-StatesSection 4: The AmericasChapter 4 Assessment

Primary Sources Library: Unit 1Standardized Test Practice: Unit 1

Unit 2: Emergence of the Modern WorldChapter 5: Renaissance and ReformationSection 1: The Italian RenaissanceSection 2: The Northern RenaissanceSection 3: The Protestant ReformationSection 4: The Spread of ProtestantismSection 5: The Catholic ReformationChapter 5 Assessment

Chapter 6: Expanding HorizonsSection 1: Early ExplorationsSection 2: Overseas EmpiresSection 3: Changing Ways of LifeChapter 6 Assessment

Chapter 7: Empires of AsiaSection 1: Muslim EmpiresSection 2: Chinese DynastiesSection 3: The Japanese EmpireSection 4: Southeast AsiaChapter 7 Assessment

Chapter 8: Royal Power and ConflictSection 1: SpainSection 2: EnglandSection 3: FranceSection 4: The German StatesSection 5: RussiaChapter 8 Assessment


Unit 3: Age of RevolutionChapter 9: Scientific RevolutionSection 1: New Scientific IdeasSection 2: Impact of ScienceSection 3: Triumph of ReasonChapter 9 Assessment

Chapter 10: English and American RevolutionsSection 1: Civil WarSection 2: A King Returns to the ThroneSection 3: Road to RevoltSection 4: A War for IndependenceChapter 10 Assessment

Chapter 11: The French RevolutionSection 1: The Old OrderSection 2: Constitutional GovernmentSection 3: Dawn of a New EraSection 4: Napoleon's EmpireSection 5: Peace in EuropeChapter 11 Assessment


Unit 4: Industry and NationalismChapter 12: Age of IndustrySection 1: Living from the LandSection 2: The Beginnings of ChangeSection 3: The Growth of IndustrySection 4: A New SocietyChapter 12 Assessment

Chapter 13: Cultural RevolutionSection 1: New IdeasSection 2: The New ScienceSection 3: Popular CultureSection 4: Revolution in the ArtsChapter 13 Assessment

Chapter 14: Democracy and ReformSection 1: Reform in Great BritainSection 2: The DominionsSection 3: Political Struggles in FranceSection 4: Expansion of the United StatesSection 5: Latin American IndependenceChapter 14 Assessment

Chapter 15: Reaction and NationalismSection 1: The Unification of ItalySection 2: The Unification of GermanySection 3: Bismarck's RealmSection 4: Empire of the CzarsSection 5: Austria-Hungary's DeclineChapter 15 Assessment

Chapter 16: The Age of ImperialismSection 1: Pressures for ExpansionSection 2: The Partition of AfricaSection 3: The Division of AsiaSection 4: Imperialism in the AmericasChapter 16 Assessment


Unit 5: World in ConflictChapter 17: World War ISection 1: The Seeds of WarSection 2: The SparkSection 3: The WarSection 4: The Russian RevolutionSection 5: Peace at LastChapter 17 Assessment

Chapter 18: Between Two FiresSection 1: The Postwar WorldSection 2: The Western DemocraciesSection 3: Fascist DictatorshipsSection 4: The Soviet UnionChapter 18 Assessment

Chapter 19: Nationalism in Asia, Africa, and Latin AmericaSection 1: New Forces in the Middle East and AfricaSection 2: India's Struggle for IndependenceSection 3: China's Drive for ModernizationSection 4: Militarism in JapanSection 5: Nationalism in Latin AmericaChapter 19 Assessment

Chapter 20: World War IISection 1: The Path to WarSection 2: War in EuropeSection 3: A Global ConflictSection 4: Turning PointsSection 5: Allied VictoriesChapter 20 Assessment


Unit 6: The Contemporary WorldChapter 21: The Cold WarSection 1: The East-West SplitSection 2: The Communist BlocSection 3: Western EuropeSection 4: The United States and CanadaChapter 21 Assessment

Chapter 22: Asia and the PacificSection 1: Japan's Economic RiseSection 2: China in RevolutionSection 3: A Divided KoreaSection 4: Southeast AsiaSection 5: South AsiaSection 6: The PacificChapter 22 Assessment

Chapter 23: AfricaSection 1: African IndependenceSection 2: Africa TodaySection 3: Africa's ChallengeChapter 23 Assessment

Chapter 24: The Middle EastSection 1: Nationalism in the Middle EastSection 2: War and Peace in the Middle EastSection 3: Challenges Facing the Middle EastChapter 24 Assessment

Chapter 25: Latin AmericaSection 1: Latin American ChallengesSection 2: Mexico and the CaribbeanSection 3: Central AmericaSection 4: South AmericaChapter 25 Assessment

Chapter 26: The World in TransitionSection 1: The End of the Cold WarSection 2: The Crumbling WallSection 3: Toward a European UnionSection 4: National and Ethnic ConflictsSection 5: Global InterdependenceChapter 26 Assessment


AppendixGlossaryIndexSpanish GlossaryAcknowledgments

FeaturesNational Geographic SocietySpecial ReportPicturing History

The Spread of IdeasBridge to the Past: LiteratureTurning PointImages of the TimesConnections to . . .GeographyEconomicsScience and TechnologyThe Arts

Around the WorldFootnotes to HistoryPrimary Sources LibraryStandardized Test PracticeSkillsSocial Studies SkillsCritical Thinking SkillsStudy and Writing SkillsTechnology Skills

MapsCharts, Graphs, and Diagrams

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