The Cold War1945-53

Chapter 23

The Freedom Train

1947 A 300 traveling exhibit to celebrate the 160th anniversary of the signing of the Constitution (an awkward date choice, but we had been a little depressed for the 150) which displayed the Constitution, the Mayflower Compact, the Emancipation Proclamation, the Declaration of Independence and Gettysburg Address. Attracted 3.5 million visitors across the nation.

Shows our patriotism and pride after the war

Origins of the Cold War

Roots of ContainmentIron Curtain As war ended US gradually assumed Britain’s

former role as world leader- especially as it related to dealing with the new threat from the Soviets- (what we don’t know is that it is all a front, Soviets have EVERYTHING in the window, nothing to back it up) US will not be returning to isolationism

Soviets see their actions as accomplishing multiple goals: Regain lands taken at Brest Litovsk in 1917 – and FINALLY get the recognition they have been looking for since the 1700s!

Long Telegram 1946: George Kennan says you can’t think of USSR as a “normal” gov’t too many other layers – and if we don’t stop them, no one will.

Iron Curtain: Churchill’s famous speech popularized the idea of a long term struggle between the US and USSR

Truman Doctrine “I believe that it must be the policy of the United

States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities (internal communists) or outside pressures (USSR)”.

Cold War becomes (as the war had been) an ideological struggle with the “forces of liberty” defending against the “forces of darkness”.

National Securities Act: Created the “Defense Department” (Pentagon) to coordinate the various branches/actions of the military , with the National Security Council (NCS) and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) created in 1948/49 to deal with the “threats” at home and abroad to US interests.

We also maintained the draft (1st peacetime draft) and planned to continue large scale military spending

Greece and Turkey

The Test. Both countries had internal communist movements (not backed significantly by USSR) and “democratic gov’ts” (I am using that loosely, neither were really democratic- and that will be a thing in cold war, we support a LOT of people who are not so nice- as long as they are not communist) had been supported by England- in 1947 they say they can’t help anymore- need US to take over. We d0 (spend about $400 million), assuming a permanent (to this point) global responsibility

Containment

1947- US stated goal was that no other country should become communist (Saw USSR as a threat to “American way of life”)

Became even more adamant after Communist takeover of China in 1949

There was recognition that communist ideology was not going to change as long as Stalin was around- they best they could do was hold. Truman Doctrine, Marshall plan, and NATO all part of containment.

Marshall Plan

Greece/Turkey was new thing for us- and we follow it with another….massive foreign aide

Europe was in trouble- econs were in ruin, physical damage everywhere, food/housing shortages.

Marshall plan offered loans to rebuild any European nation that asked for them- including the communists (though USSR won’t take or let satellites take) We spend $12.5 billion from 1947-51 in 16 European countries- facilitating their recovery – but also solidifying “us” and “them”

The Reconstruction of Japan Gen. Douglas MacArthur put in charge of

rebuilding Japan from ground up. We wrote them a new constitution and

required them to accept. Created democratic gov’t Gave women the vote Required that they forever “renounce” war and

abolish military (they still don’t really have one By 1950s recovery was well underway –

along with significant culture adjustment.

Germany

Main goal of allies was “de-nazification”, erasing the ideology, and the crisis that had created it- again, trying NOT to make mistakes of 1918.

In 1945 Germany was split into 4 zones by Eng, Fr, US, USSR for administration of surrender. When it became clear Soviets were keeping theirs, other 3 combined into Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and rebuilt as a moderate democracy. US poured $$ into redevelopment- and they rebounded, within 20 years econ was better than ever.

Soviets create Democratic Republic of Germany (East Germany) hard line communism, industry stripped

Berlin Airlift: 1948-49. USSR tried to cut off West Berlin to push allies out. We respond with 277,000 flights to deliver $2 million tons of aide

NATO vs Warsaw Pact

New enemies require new friends North Atlantic Treaty Organization: 1949

mutual defense treaty signed between 12 nations: US, Eng, France, Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Iceland, Canada, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway. Collective security. Other nations joined over time

Warsaw Pact: Soviet version- mutual defense with their satellites- showing NATO they don’t stand alone either (Mutual Assured Destruction hallmark of the cold war era) USSR, Poland, East Ger, Czech, Romania, Bulgaria

USSR explodes their 1st atomic bomb Sept 1949

The Growing Communist Challenge

China had been in the middle of a civil war between communists and Nationalists when the Japanese attacked- agreed to pause an deal with the outside threat

War resumed in 1945- and in 1949 Mao Zedong pushed Chang Kai Shek out (to Taiwan) US refuses to recognize People’s Republic of China from 1949-72

Really pushes US to maintain military and pursue a “global crusade against communism”. We refuse to recognize China until the 1970s. NSC-68 calls for increased military spending to counter the perceived threat

Hydrogen Bomb

US exploded 1st Hydrogen bomb in 1952. 10x more powerful- an

atomic bomb can destroy a city- a few Hydrogen bombs could destroy and entire nation or region

Soviets exploded in 1953 For the 1st time in history-

mankind has the power to destroy civilization

Korean War 1950-53 Cold war started in Europe- got “hot” in Asia Korea had been a territory of Japan, had been

divided at 38th parallel by US/USSR at end of war, US sets up a democratic gov’t, USSR a communist satellite state

1950: North Korea invades South. UN, (with leadership of US) moved to step in and support S. Korea. A big test- can it DO something (unlike League and their “condemnations”) Able to go b/c China not yet “recognized” and USSR is temp. boycotting UN because it won’t recognize

Conflict is a tie- 38th parallel still border today. 33K Americans die, 1 million Korean soldiers and 2 million Korean Civilians

Limited War

Douglas MacArthur (Supreme Allied commander in Pacific WWII) was in command of Us forces in Korea.- as we push North Korea back over their line, he argues to not only invade the North, but to attack China as well (push the Communists out, reinstall nationalists) - expanding the war significantly.

Truman says no, and MacArthur makes a series of public statement criticizing the President and his ability to handle the fighting. Truman removes him from Command.

Superpowers have global ability to fight- and deliberately choose NOT to use their most extreme weapons- or to allow conflict to spread, but to limit the conflict to the region at hand.

Threat of WWIII and nuclear annihilation hung over all participants- there is now a type of war where NO ONE wins

Cold War Critics

The tricky thing with our perception of the Cold War as a black/white battle between “freedom” and “oppression” is that there is very little room for grey area.

George Kenan warned that that our stance made it impossible to evaluate international crises on an case by case basis- to us, if it’s communist- it MUST be bad. If it is anti-communist , it MUST be right. Again, this will lead us to supporting some nasty people, and fighting some good ones (like Ho Chi Mihn in Vietnam- who was much more of a nationalist than anything else)

Imperialism and Decolonialization

Europe can no longer hold their empires- they have been through too much, lost too many resources.

Period from 1945-1960 dozens of new nations are created- sometimes peacefully, sometimes with struggle/revolution. US made Philippines independent in 1946

Europe tries to direct what happens to colonies as they become nations, which can either solve problems or create them, depending on who you ask. Also- we still had a really loose definition of what we called “democracy” to make you part of “free world” (ex. South Africa)

The Cold War and the Idea of Freedom“Freedom” is our favorite word during cold war- an inescapable theme of academic research, popular journalism, mass culture, and official pronouncements.

The Cultural Cold War

There are some MARVELOUS 50s anti-communist movies – but we also started rewriting our history to focus on ourselves as a land of pluralism and tolerance- ignoring all the times we weren’t (Natives and Slaves and Immigrants oh my!)

I love the idea that the CIA sponsored modern art – including original funding form MoMA to prove that America had better culture than USSR

Freedom and TotalitarianismThe Rise of Human Rights

Whatever Moscow stood for was the opposite of freedom- including anything with the world “socialized” attached (which is curious in an era of big government)

Also impacted the emerging idea of human rights (1st defined at Nuremberg trials- crimes against humanity) The idea is that a nation’s treatment of its own citizens can be subject to international scrutiny. UN Charter on Human Rights (Eleanor Roosevelt) defines human rights as: freedom of speech, religious toleration, protection against arbitrary gov’t, right to make an adequate living, access to housing, education and medical care. This can be tricky- who has the right to enforce the rights being violated?

The Truman Presidency

The Fair Deal

Needed to transition from a wartime to peacetime economy. 12 million men needed to be “demobilized” (by 1946, 9 million of them were civilians and GI Bill offered lots of new pathways)

A return to many of the ideas of New Deal- but without the crisis. Truman called it the Fair Deal: Focusing on improving the social safety net and raising the standard of living for ordinary Americans. Called on Congress to increase the minimum wage, create national health insurance (didn’t happen) and expand public housing.

Postwar Strike Wave

During war- government had supported labor- but limited their power- b/c they needed production. Unions had been gaining members, and in 1946 there was a wave of strikes to increase their numbers and their power

Nearly 5 million workers in steel, auto, coal and other industries were on strike at various times throughout the year- closest thing to a general strike we have ever had. Truman did fact finding – recommended wage increases

Concerns about labor issues created 1st widespread Republican congressional victories since 1929. They turned aside aspects of Fair deal, and created tax cuts for wealthy Americans (over veto) and passed “right to work” laws prohibiting compulsory union membership.

The Republican Resurgence

In the congressional elections 1946- for the 1st time since the 20s, people voted republican. They fought Truman’s Fair Deal, enacted tax cuts for wealthy Americans, and the Taft Hartley Act (gave the gov’t the power to end strikes, outlawed closed shops, and required unions to swear they weren’t communist) over Truman’s veto

22nd Amendment 1951 “Anti- FDR” Amendment- a response to 17 years of Democratic control of the White House. Limited president to two terms- a max of 10 years if a VP assumed presidency due to death/departure of previous leader.

Truman and Civil Rights

Truman was MUCH more active than FDR had been- specifically reaching out to the NAACP and Black community in general. Voter registration increased in the upper south, and law enforcement officials took lynching seriously. Integrated military through executive order

1947- Brooklyn Dodgers and Jackie Robinson 1948 Truman presented a civil rights bill to

congress- calling for a permanent commission, national laws against lynching and poll tax, and action of ensure equal access to jobs and education.

That’s about all the southern wing of the new deal coalition can take- and the election of 1948 is about to get messy

Dixicrats and the Election of 1948

Truman was not afraid to make tough choices (which gets him a good rating) but doing what you think is right is not going to make a politician

popular … and Truman was often the subject of bitter debate. 1948 when Truman ran against

Thomas Dewey (gov of NY) Democrats beginning to split over civil rights- and

that took votes from Truman, south walked out convention and created Dixiecrat party which ran Strom Thurman, and last elements of the progressives who ran George Wallace. Last campaign before tv and commercials get involved- where ideology is the determining factor

It looked like Truman was going down, Chicago Tribune even printed headline…But Truman pulled out a narrow victory

The Anti Communist CrusadeCold war encouraged a culture of gov’t secrecy and dishonesty. Both US and USSR exposed soldiers to chemical and biological weapons (as well as nuclear fallout) without their knowledgeContainment wasn’t JUST abroad – we were still really worried about unorthodox ideas

Loyalty and Disloyalty “Fear” an undercurrent of cold war society.

Fear of communism leading to another war, fear of nuclear attack, fear of another depression….

Demagogue politicians played on and exploited those fears for electoral gain and political power. Sharp line between “patriotic Americans” and the “disloyal”

Alger Hiss (undersecretary of State) accused of passing documents to the Soviets, which was not proven, but jury gave him 5 years for perjury.

Richard Nixon led prosecution- gained national recognition and a VP nomination.

The Spy Trials Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Members

of the American Communist party- accused of passing scientific information to the Soviets which had led them to successful development of the Atomic bomb.

“Evidence” in the case was top secret documents- never shown to the court (or the defense attorneys)- but though they were not convicted of espionage they were convicted of conspiracy and executed. Truth of the case still unknown.

McCarthy Trials

The 1950s is an age where “different” is pretty synonymous with “dangerous”….and dangerous means communist. Senator Joe McCarthy of Wisconsin emerged as the head of the

anti communist crusade 1950n announced that he had a list of communists who worked

for the state department. Senate hearings started (committee on government operations) which became a witch hunt platform for McCarthy to search for “Reds” and “Pinkos”.

Made unsubstantiated accusations for 4 years about federal employees, members of the armed forces, university professors- eventually questioned Eisenhower’s patriotism (after soviet summit)

Eventually hearings became televised, which is what brought McCarthy down- everyone could see his bullying. Unfortunately for many of the “accused” the damage was already done

An Atmosphere of Fear House UnAmerican Activities Committee created to

address concerns about “communist influences”, specifically in the arts- esp Hollywood.

Screenwriters, Actors, Directors etc questioned and required to testify. Walt Disney, Gary Cooper, and Ronald Regan all famous for testifying that Hollywood was full of communists. Those who refused (Hollywood 10) were jailed for contempt, over 200 “blacklisted” as communist sympathizers.

J Edgar Hoover (director of FBI) complied “files” on thousands of Americans- esp political dissenters, or those with alternative lifestyles.

Lots of groups found anticommunism a convenient excuse to crack down on people/things they didn’t like – civil rights leaders used to get accused of communism a LOT

Anticommunist Politics

Anti- communist crusade filled politics. After their unexpected defeat in 1948- Republicans in congress used charges of “subversion” to block Truman’s policies- and enact their own McCarran Internal Security Bill: (passed over veto)

Required all “subversive” groups to register with the gov’t, denied passports to members, and allowed deportation

McCarran-Walter Act : (also passed over veto) New immigration law (Truman had called for end of the quota system) Kept Quotas, authorized deportation of immigrants from communist countries- even if citizens

Operation Wetback: (really????) rounding up and deporting illegal aliens from Mexico

Cold War Civil Rights

Cold war caused a shift in thinking and tactics among civil rights groups. They started pointing out idea that racism made us look bad to the rest of the world- it was against our rhetoric of freedom and equality. That annoyed a number of people in the gov’t and slowed acceptance of Truman’s policies

After 1948 things slow significantly for civil rights. But the contrast between prosperity for Whites and discrimination for Blacks would inspire a Civil Rights revolution in the late 50s and 60s- redefining American Freedom