Chapter 2: The Meaning of Progress -...

Full file at http://testbank360.eu/test-bank-cultural-anthro-2nd-edition-robbins

Chapter 2The Meaning of Progress and Development

Problem 2: How do we explain the transformation of human societies over the past 10,000 years from small-scale, nomadic bands of hunters and gatherers to large-scale, urban-

industrial states?

Learning Objectives

1. To challenge students' largely ethnocentric view of the superiority of modern culture, technology, and medicine.

2. To introduce the idea of culture change and evolution. 3. To introduce students to subsistence strategies of different societies and their adaptive

significance. 4. To examine significant global issues, including world hunger and the destruction of tribal

cultures.

Key Terms

Sedentary: a style of living characterized by permanent or semipermanent settlements. (p. 29)

Progress: the idea that human history is the story of a steady advance from a life dependent on the whims of nature to a life of control and domination over natural forces. (p. 29)

Culture change: the change in meanings that a people ascribe to experience and changes in their way of life. (p. 30)

Slash-and-burn (swidden) agriculture: a form of agriculture in which forests are cleared by burning trees and brush, and crops are planted among the ashes of the cleared ground. (p. 30)

State: a form of society characterized by a hierarchical ranking of people and centralized political control. (p. 30)

Irrigation agriculture: a form of cultivation in which water is used to deliver nutrients to growing plants. (p. 30)

Population density: the number of people in a given geographic area. (p. 35) Industrial revolution: a period of European history, general identified as occurring in

the late eighteenth century, marked by a shift in production from agriculture to industrial goods, urbanization, and the factory system. (p. 39)

“Putting out” system: a means of production common in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and surviving today in which a manufacturer or merchant supplies the materials and sometimes the tools to workers, who produce the goods in their own homes. (p. 39)

Factory system: a system of production associated with the Industrial Revolution and characterized by the concentration of labor and machines in specific places. (p. 39)

Economic development: the term used to identify an increase in the level of technology and, by some, the standard of living of a population. Others view it as an ideology based on three key assumptions: (1) that economic growth and development are the solution to national as well as global problems; (2) that global economic integration will contribute

19


to solving global ecological and social problems; and (3) that foreign assistance to undeveloped countries will make things better. (p. 43)

World Bank: originally called the Bank for Reconstruction and Development, one of the institutions created at the Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, meeting in 1944 of Allied nations; functions as a lending institution to nations largely for projects related to economic development. (p. 43)

Factory model: an energy-intensive, ecologically damaging form of agriculture intended to grow or raise as many crops or as much livestock as possible in the shortest amount of time. (p. 45)

Agroecological approach: agricultural methods that incorporate indigenous practices of food production that preserve the environment along with contemporary agricultural research. (p.45)

Pathogen: an infectious agent such as a bacterium or a virus that can cause disease. (p. 48)

Vector: when referring to disease, an organism, such as a mosquito, tick, flea, or snail, that can transmit disease to another animal. (p. 48)

Interpersonal theory of disease: a view of disease in which it is assumed that illness is caused by tensions or conflicts in social relations (p. 50)

Chapter Outline

Introduction: The Death of a Way of LifeI. The Extinction of Hunting and Gathering

A. Hunting and gathering is over 100,000 years old.B. Until approximately 10,000 years ago, all humans lived as hunter-gatherers.

i. They lived in small groups of about 30 to 100 people.ii. They were nomadic and gathered plant foods and hunted for meat.

C. Today, almost no human groups live exclusively as hunter-gatherers.D. Human groups today live with vast differences in standards of living.

i. Some groups have abundant food, comfortable shelter, and numerous consumer goods.

ii. Others, over a billion of the world’s population, live in crude or no shelters, suffer hunger and poverty and lack even basic health care.

E. What prompted people to abandon hunting and gathering and begin farming?i. About 10,000 years ago, some groups began to domesticate plants and

animals.ii. With the domestication of plants and animals such groups abandoned their

nomadic ways and established small villages.iii. In the past 10,000 years, societies grew as did great inequality between

groups. F. The reasons for the rise of agriculture and sedentary life.

i. Is this way of life preferable to hunting and gathering?ii. Do most humans wish to change their way of life to one more like ours?

iii. Do we accept that the great division of wealth in our own time is a part of progress?

20


iv. Is progress a concept based on an ethnocentric notion of technological superiority?

II. Some Background in Evolution and PrehistoryA. Humans lived in small groups, foraging for food for thousands of years.

i. Small groups were mobile, so that the search for food was easierii. Such groups only required simple economic, political and social

arrangements.1. There was little or no occupational specialization and people had

few possessions2. There were no formal leaders.3. Specialists tended to be those with perceived spiritual powers.4. Kinship was the main organizing principle.5. Groups were generally egalitarian.

B. About 10,000 years ago, humans began to domesticate plants and animals.i. Sedentary social groups were larger, between 200 and 2000 people.

ii. Groups practiced slash and burn agriculture.1. They burned forest cover.2. They planted in the ashes of the cleared ground.3. The group would farm the area from one to three years and then

move to another area and begin the cycle again.iii. As populations grew, they formed larger villages organized on the basis of

extended family groups.1. The family relationships allowed groups to form clans—groups of

200 to 500 people claiming descent from a common ancestor.2. Larger groups required some formal leadership and some

individuals assumed the authority to make decisions and resolve disputes.

3. Specific occupational roles developed and some members of groups became ranked in importance.

iv. Over time, different settlements or villages created alliances under common leaders, perhaps for defense against other groups.

1. The growth and expansion of these arrangements created states.2. Agriculture intensified, and slash-and-burn agriculture was

replaced by plow or irrigation agriculture.3. Leaders organized labor among the population to build public

works, including roads, religious structures and irrigation networks.

v. Competition over resources over resources also drove the growth of armies, led to the rise of hereditary leaders, and small settlements grew into cities.

1. City-dwellers began to specialize in specific tasks.2. Trade and specialized merchants arose, trading items between such

groups.vi. About 300 years ago, such states began expanding into the large industrial

states that we recognize today.

21


C. Is the evolution from hunting and gathering to the industrial state an improvement for humans?

i. Are states a “better” way of organizing human societies?ii. Some have suggested that slash-and-burn agriculture is more efficient and

less wasteful than modern agriculture.iii. If small-scale societies are not inferior to modern life, why are such people

dying off?

Question 2.1: Why did hunter-gatherer societies switch to sedentary agriculture? I. Changes in Society

A. An early argument for the shift from hunting and gathering to farming was that it was easier and more productive.

i. In the nineteenth century, Lewis Henry Morgan argued that human societies passed through three stages, savagery, barbarism and civilization.

ii. Morgan noted that different societies were at different “stages” of this progression.

iii. The shift from one to another stage was triggered by technological innovation.

iv. In the mid-twentieth century, Leslie White suggested that society evolved through the capture of energy in increasingly efficient ways.

1. Hunter-gatherers had only their own muscle power to exploit which limited what they could produce.

2. Different technological advances, for instance the plow or waterwheel, allowed people to transform more and more energy to their use and thus produce more.

3. Such technological advances persisted, for example through the use of coal or oil.

4. Technological advances permitted occupational specialization which in turn led to the development of commerce.

5. Such advances also allowed societies to expand in size, and have increased contact, creating the state to coordinate group activities, maintain order and protect resources.

v. The benefits of technology remain a popular explanation for the transformation of societies.

vi. In the 1960s, James Woodburn studied the Hadza, a hunter-gatherer society living in Tanzania.

vii. Woodburn found that the Hadza lived in a region rich in animal and plant resources.

1. Typically, men hunted for meat exclusively.2. Women exclusively gathered plant foods, providing as much as

80% of the diet.viii. Hadza child health was good and perhaps better than agriculturalists in the

areas.B. Life among Hunter-Gatherers: the Ju/wasi.

i. In the 1950s John and Lorna Marshall encountered the Ju/wasi, who lived in southwestern Africa.

22


ii. The Marshalls, and others, including Richard B. Lee, studied the Ju/wasi for many years.

1. The Ju/wasi lived near water holes, but would search for food every few days.

2. The Ju/wasi did not need to gather food daily and did not spend long hours when they did gather food.

3. Women gathered between 60 and 80% of all food.4. Men gathered some food but provided meat obtained through

hunting.5. The Ju/wasi diet provided enough calories and nutrients to

maintain health.6. Ju/wasi meat consumption—175-200 pounds per year--paralleled

that in many developed countries,iii. Fieldwork with hunter-gatherers showed that they did not live marginal

lives, on the edge of starvation, a stereotype based on ethnocentric assumptions that modern life is the pinnacle of development.

C. The Transition to Agriculturei. Agriculture might have developed as a result of population density.

1. Mark Nathan Cohen showed that hunting and gathering societies obtained food in a series of concentric circles.

2. As territories expanded and different groups began to encounter each other, groups began to plant their own crops rather than collecting them.

3. Evidence suggests that humans understood agriculture far earlier than they began using it, preferring the less taxing work of gathering.

ii. Agriculture actually made life worse rather than better.1. Slash-and-burn agriculture is efficient when farmers have a large

supply of land because harvests decline rapidly. Thus, it is only efficient if the population and the available land are constant.

2. As environments change, people must use different tools, for example switching from a digging stick to a plow, to increase yield. These changes more labor, requiring more people who in turn require more food.

iii. Slash-and-burn agriculture is abandoned for methods providing larger harvests.

1. People may begin to fight for access to land.2. If a certain group begins intensifying farming, changes in social

organization will develop to manage it.iv. From this perspective, the transition to agriculture was forced on people

by the growth in population.v. While modern societies produce food at very little personal energy cost,

other energy costs are very high.D. Modern agriculture: producing potato calories.

i. John H. Bodley compared sweet potato production in New Guinea with white potato production in the United States.

23


1. In New Guinea, people clear and prepare fields through the use of slash and burn agriculture. They use about10% of available arable land and produce about 5 million calories per acre.

2. In the U.S., farms produce about 12 million calories, or more than twice as much.

a. U.S. farms require chemicals to reduce pests, fertilizer to maintain the soil and large machines for planting and harvesting, thus adding vast amounts of non-human energy.

b. The U.S. system also includes distribution costs, to get the potatoes to consumers. Nearly 95% of the U.S. population is concentrated in or near urban centers and the cost of distribution exceeds the cost of production.

c. The complete U.S. production system requires Americans to expend between 8 and 12 calories of energy to produce one calorie of food!

Question 2.2: Why are some societies more industrially advanced than others? I. The Rich and the Poor.

A. While hunter-gatherers and simple farmers may have more efficient means of production that those in the modern world, this does not explain the vast economic differences between different peoples.

i. The top income level in the world economy consists of about a billion people in the developed nations make more than $20,000 annually.

ii. The bottom income level in the world economy consists of about 4 billion people who make less than $2,000 per year.

iii. What factors make the standard of living in the developed countries so much higher than that in the undeveloped countries?

B. Development and the English textile industry.i. Before the Industrial Revolution in Europe, China was likely the richest

country in the world, since it received payments taken from Latin America by the Spanish and Portuguese. These were to pay for silk, spices, tea, and other luxury goods.

ii. The country of India developed a thriving textile trade, selling cotton fabric in Europe.

iii. Wealthy states existed in western Africa, and trade thrived, driven by Islamic trade routes from Africa to Southeast Asia.

iv. In contrast, seventeenth-century England was a rural agricultural country. 1. Even at the beginning of the eighteenth century, only 13% of the

English population lived in towns of 5,000 or more.2. At the same time, England had a thriving trade in wool and wool

textile production.a. Wool production was a handicraft industry, where

individuals or small groups processed the wool and transformed it into cloth.

b. Wool cloth was sold at local markets or to urban traders or merchants for resale.

24


3. Though this system was profitable, merchants wanted more control over the type, quantity and quality of the cloth produced by spinners and weavers.

a. Merchants first instituted a putting out system where they supplied weavers with the raw material and tools, and specified the kind of cloth to be made. They then picked up the completed product and paid the weavers for their work.

b. In the eighteenth century the factory system replaced the putting out system whereby merchants moved all producers—processors, spinners, weavers—into one production facility.

i. Merchants made most of their profit through trade and found the factory manufacturing costly.

ii. Changes in the organization of work required new forms of discipline and control and early factories were like prisons.

iii. Merchants had to keep the factory workers busy to pay for the investment in the factory, so they had to create demand for the products the factory made.

c. What did make factories attractive for investment were government subsidies for production and laws that ensured cheap labor.

i. Rural farmers who had lost land due to legal changes favoring larger farms became factory workers.

ii. No laws mandated a minimum age for work, a minimum wage, or time off so factory owners hired women and children. By 1834, 13% of the English cotton industry was under 13 years of age, and by 1838 only 23% of textile workers were adult men.

4. The textile industry created numerous economic, political and social changes.

a. Cities expanded dramatically. In 1800 about 25% of the English population lived in towns of 5,000 or more. The textile producing city of Manchester grew from 24,000 in 1773 to over 250,000 by 1851.

b. Textile factories drove the development of technology as weaving became more mechanized. Weaver-output doubled, but spinners could not produce thread fast enough, leading to mechanization of the spinning process.

c. The addition of steam power further increased output. In eighteenth century India, a hand spinner needed 50,000 hours to process 100 pounds of cotton, by 1825, with numerous technological innovations, 100 pounds of cotton could be produced in 135 hours.

25


v. The development of the textile industry transformed England into one of the richest countries in the world, but it now needed to sell the textiles it produced and it needed to acquire the raw materials to continue to produce textiles. England was competing with other textile industries in Holland, France and Spain, and this impacted industries in regions outside Europe.

C. The British in India.i. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries India was a major trade power,

reaching China, the Islamic world and Europe.ii. In 1690 the British government gave the British East India Company a

monopoly over East Asian trade.1. The company established an initial trade center in Calcutta, in the

Indian state of Bengal.2. It rapidly expanded to 150 trade centers trading in silk, cotton,

sugar, rice, saltpeter (required for gunpowder), indigo (a dye) and opium.

3. In the 1750s the British provoked the Bengali government to war and defeated them in 1757.

4. The British looted the Bengal state treasury and took over the Bengali weaving industry.

5. By 1765, The British East India Company had become the civil administrator of Bengal, during which time it increased taxes on Bengali farmers and workers, leading to famines in 1770 and 1783.

6. From its base in Bengal, the British East India Company began extending its control to the Indian subcontinent.

iii. Prior to the British takeover of the region India produced textiles that were both cheaper and of higher quality than that of England.

1. The British government prohibited the British East India Company from importing Indian textiles and began producing similar textiles for both the European and Indian markets.

2. India was required to permit the sale of English textiles without trade tariffs, thus causing the Indian textile industry to collapse.

iv. The British East India Company impacted China as well. While there was high European demand for Chinese goods, particularly tea, there was little Chinese demand for European goods.

v. China did have a high demand for opium, which by 1773 the British East India Company controlled.

1. Though it was illegal, China was unable to control the smuggling of opium into its country.

2. When China seized British warehouses in Canton, in an effort to eliminate the smuggling, the British responded with military force and coerced the Chinese government into not enforcing the opium laws.

3. The British also demanded and received greater trading rights in China, thus opening a market for textiles as well as opium.

vi. British trade in China and India had three results.

26


1. It changed the flow of money between China and the rest of the world.

a. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, China had a trade surplus of 26 million silver dollars.

b. By the third decade of the nineteenth century, China had a trade deficit of 34 million dollars.

2. By the end of the nineteenth century, nearly 10% of the Chinese population was addicted to opium.

3. Exports of textiles from Britain to China and India increased from 6% of exports in 1815, to 22% in 1840, 31% in 1850, to over 50% after 1873.

D. Cotton, Slavery, and the Cherokee removali. The rise of the English textile industry also contributed to U.S. slavery and

the removal of Native Americans from their traditional lands.ii. The British sold Indian cotton to China, but European and North American

markets did not like this cotton. In Egypt and the American South, a different kind of cotton could be produced, but it was highly labor-intensive. To be profitable in the U.S. it required slave labor.

iii. Slave labor developed in part because of the textile industry, but also because of other industries, including Spanish silver mines and French sugar mills.

1. Between 1451 and 1600 some 275,000 Africans were forcibly sent to Europe and the Americas. During the seventeenth century, nearly 1,341,000 slaves were sent and from 1701 to 1810, more than 6 million people were sent.

2. Cotton production based on slave labor probably helped fuel the U.S. Industrial Revolution. Between 1815 and 1860 raw cotton made up half the value of U.S. domestic exports.

iv. The cotton industry also grew after the invention of the cotton gin, a machine that separated cotton fiber from its seeds.

1. The cotton gin allowed someone to clean 50 pounds of cotton in the same amount of time that it had previously taken to clean one pound. This allowed production to increase from 3,000 cotton bales in 1790 to 4.5 million bales by 1860.

2. For U.S. cotton to remain competitive; however, it required cheap labor and slave labor cost half the price of wage labor.

v. By 1807 half of Britain’s raw cotton imports were from the U.S. This did not cause slavery but likely prolonged it into the second half of the nineteenth century.

1. Between 1790 and 1860 about 835,000 slaves were moved from Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas to Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas.

2. Native Americans in these regions were moved and placed on reservations so that the land could be converted to cotton farming.

27


Question 2.3: Why don’t poor countries modernize and develop in the same way as wealthy countries?

I. Economic developmentA. The Industrial Revolution radically transformed the lives of people in Europe and

the United States because the majority of the people shifted from being farmers to laborers, though this was not by choice.

B. Since the Industrial Revolution, the rate of technological and economic development has generally been extremely high, increasing the standard of living for people in Western countries dramatically.

C. However, for those in the developing world, the standard of living dropped dramatically as those countries came under the sphere of Western influence.

i. As such countries became independent they sought the standard of living typical of the Western world.

ii. This led to the push for what became known as economic development.D. The U.S. idea of economic development was presented in 1949 by President

Harry S. Truman in his inaugural address. i. It was based on the idea that nonindustrial countries were “backward” and

needed to develop economically and socially.ii. During this time “development” was a kind of code word for

“Westernization.”1. Development was assumed to improve the lives of people to whom

it was offered.2. There was a focus on the concept of “progress” that would lead to

a way of life more like that in the West.3. Development experts sought to learn as much as they could about

developing or nonindustrial countries, perhaps regarding social life as a kind of technical problem properly solved by economists and agricultural experts, as Arturo Escobar has noted.

iii. During this period of time, economic development was based upon three key assumptions.

1. Economic growth and development will solve national as well as global problems.

2. Global economic integration will contribute to solving global ecological and social problems.

3. Foreign assistance to underdeveloped countries will improve life in those countries.

iv. Countries wishing to develop would seek loans and investments to create infrastructure and train workers for new industries.

1. These loans would allow underdeveloped countries to produce things that developed countries did not produce.

a. Developing countries could produce cash crops such as cotton, sugar, tobacco, and coffee.

b. Such countries could also produce raw natural resources like oil, certain metal ores, and timber.

2. While this kind of development was not new, what changed was the degree of apparent support offered by the industrialized West.

28


3. Specific institutions, such as the World Bank, were set up specifically to promote this kind of economic development.

a. The World Bank was created in 1944, at a meeting of World War II allied nations held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.

b. These allies developed a plan for postwar economic development and monetary stability throughout the world, particularly for those countries devastated in war.

c. Originally called the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the bank was funded by the member nations in the form of loan guarantees and would provide assistance for projects like roads, dams, power plants and other projects.

d. The bank was to make loans without regard for political or other noneconomic factors and was not to interfere with the political affairs of any member or debtor nation.

4. The World Bank made its first loans in 1946 to European countries rebuilding after World War II, and rapidly expanded its loan program to developing countries such as Brazil, Indonesia, and India.

a. The presence of the World Bank often drew other banks and other investment into a client country.

b. While the purpose and goal of the investment was said to be economic development, often what followed was increased poverty and environmental decline.

E. The Case of Brazili. Brazil has been a major recipient of World Bank loans.

1. In the 1960s the Brazilian government made a conscious decision to industrialize.

2. With investment from the World Bank and other institutions, Brazil built dams, roads, factories, and modernized its agriculture, thus becoming a major trader in the export of commercial crops like soybeans.

3. Cities grew dramatically as factories were built and expanded and people moved there to work.

ii. The trade-off for this development was that Brazil needed to keep foreign income flowing to pay off its loans.

1. Landowners were encouraged to expand into a range of cash crops, often expanding into the lands of smallholders.

2. Land expansion drove many of these displaced farmers to towns and cities to look for work that was unavailable.

3. Others became landless agricultural workers, usually laboring for a wage that would not support them.

4. Many agricultural workers could not even afford to buy the food they helped to produce.

29


iii. In the mid-1980s, Brazil, among other debtor nations, found it could not maintain its loan payments and threatened to default on them.

1. The World Bank permitted renegotiation of the loan conditions, in which extreme cuts in government spending on social programs, like education and public health, were required.

2. The loan requirements further reduced the standard of living for most poor Brazilians.

iv. Economic development dramatically increased Brazil’s total wealth, and some Brazilians are extremely wealthy, but more than 40% of the Brazilian population lives in poverty.

v. The pattern seen in Brazil is replicated throughout Latin America, Africa and parts of Asia.

vi. The question of whether economic development improves lives may depend on who you are. If you are a member of a wealthy Western country you may say yes, but if you are a small farmer or laborer in an underdeveloped country, economic development may have reduced your standard of living dramatically.

Question 2.4: How do modern standards of health and medical treatment compare with those of traditional societies?

I. Illness and InequalityA. Are there technologies, for example medical technologies, that have improved the

lives of virtually everyone?i. We need to know if we have really progressed in our ability to treat

disease.ii. We need to ask if we actually fully understand the traditional forms of

medicine that modern medicine has sought to replace.B. The treatment of health and disease is generally regarded as a triumph of modern

life.i. Life expectancy has nearly doubled over the twentieth century, from about

30 years in 1900 to 63 in 2000.ii. Antibiotics cure many formerly fatal diseases.

iii. Improved diagnostic methods make it easier to identify the onset of some diseases, aiding in their treatment.

iv. The greatest determinant of how successfully a country protects its citizens from disease is the degree of economic equality in that country.

C. Where economic inequality is persistent, disease and poor health are greater.i. In developing countries, 42% of deaths are due to infectious disease. In

contrast such diseases cause only 1.2% of deaths in industrial countries.ii. Environmental factors, in particular organic and chemical pollutants, cause

40% of all deaths around the world.iii. In poorer countries the incidence of pollutants is far higher, for example

1.2 billion people throughout the world lack clean and safe water.iv. Even in the U.S., such factors impact the poor to a greater degree; about

75% of hazardous landfills in southern states were located in African-

30


American communities, even though African Americans make up only 20% of the population in these regions.

D. How does infectious disease affect and kill people? i. For someone to die of an infectious disease at least four things must

happen. Whether you die of the disease is affected at each stage by social and cultural factors.

1. You must come into contact with a pathogen or vector that carries the disease.

2. The pathogen must be virulent—it must be able to kill you.3. The pathogen must invade your immune system.4. The pathogen must be able to circumvent whatever measures are in

place in society to prevent it from hurting you.ii. Cultural complexity has increased our exposure to infectious agents.

1. Large permanent settlements attract and sustain vermin such as fleas and rats that serve as hosts for microorganisms and allow them to persist in the environment.

2. Such settlements also allow the build-up of human waste.3. Settled agriculture changes the environment in ways that increase

disease. Schistosomiasis, a parasitic infection acquired through contact with carrier worms or snails, increased because the carriers dwell in irrigation ditches.

4. People and domestic animals live more closely together, increasing the contact between people and disease-causing organisms.

5. Food storage as well increases the likelihood of the spread of disease agents.

iii. Whether you die after your contact with a disease-causing agent includes such factors as your social and cultural situation and upon your income.

1. Some pathogens need living hosts to live and reproduce themselves so a host that dies is disadvantageous to them.

2. Other pathogens have evolved not to need humans specifically to live and such pathogens may be more deadly.

a. For example, pathogens that can live in water can infect those who come into contact with the water.

b. Such individuals will still serve as a host for the pathogen and may also use water (for cleaning or drinking) and thus contaminate it further.

c. Those who do not have access to clean, treated water are thus more likely to contract such diseases.

iv. Your immune system is another line of defense preventing you from contracting a disease.

1. Immune system health is a function of diet and good diet is dependent upon income.

2. In 1950, about 20% of the world’s population (500 million people at the time) was malnourished while today 50% of the world’s population, about 3 billion people, is undernourished, and thus at greater risk for disease.

31


v. Should you become ill, society devises ways to cure disease.1. While medicine has made great strides in the treatment and cure of

disease, access to medicine is strongly related to social inequality.a. Access to cures is determined by a country’s degree of

economic inequality, not its overall absolute wealth.b. While the U.S. is the wealthiest country in the world it

ranks 38 in the world in life expectancy.i. The U.S. has the largest income gap of any

industrialized country.ii. Japan, which has the lowest income gap of

industrialized countries, and in which three times as many people smoke, has the highest life expectancy.

vi. While dramatic progress in understanding and curing infectious disease has been made, progress in providing access to such cures has declined. Further, global exposure to pollutants and pathogens has increased, exposing more people to these agents.

E. The Meaning of Illnessi. Different societies understand and treat illness based on different

conceptions of what illness is and how it operates. 1. In the U.S. illness is regarded as an intrusion by an outside agent

such as bacteria or viruses. Thus treatment involves elimination of the outside agent and death occurs when the agent has not been successfully excluded.

2. Elsewhere illness may be seen as the result of an act of witchcraft or sorcery, such as “soul loss” where the soul leaves the body, or spirit possession, wherein one is possessed by a foreign supernatural entity.

3. Spiritual or magical explanations for illness also assume that sorcerers or witches do not strike at random and that other forms of illness transmission are similarly specific. Illness is thus caused for social reasons.

4. Witchcraft involves relations between people, with the witch afflicting someone who has broken a specific social rule or caused offense.

ii. Chewa disease theory1. The Chewa of Malawi (Africa) maintain that illness and death are

caused when someone does not follow a specific social norm.2. While Americans want to know the disease that caused a death,

Chewas want to know what the victim has done wrong, with whom the victim argued or who was jealous of the victim.

3. A Chewa who becomes ill visits a diviner to understand the cause of the illness. The diviner asks the person about kinship relations, genealogy, and ancestral spirits. Thus, the Chewa theory of disease is not strictly supernatural but also a social theory of illness.

32


iii. Susto, or soul loss.1. Susto, also called pasmo, espanto and perdida de la samba, is

found widely in Latin America.2. Susto happens when the soul detaches itself from the body.3. Symptoms include restlessness, listlessness, loss of appetite,

disinterest in appearance and hygiene, loss of strength and introversion.

4. A fright caused by some unexpected encounter or event can cause susto, with the fright prompting the soul to leave the body.

5. A susto sufferer customarily visits a healer for diagnosis. After the cause is determined the healer coaxes the soul back into the body and then treats it with massage, rubbing, and/or sweat baths to cure the illness.

iv. Arthur Rubel studied cases of susto and found that in every case the patient experiences some situation as stressful, resulting from difficult social relations with specific people. Susto was the result when people felt unable to meet specific social obligations.

v. All such illnesses are expressions of the interpersonal theory of disease. In this theory, illness is thought to arise from tensions or conflicts in social relations.

1. In this theory, witches, spirits and sorcerers are mediating agents linking a social cause—the conflict—to a physical result—illness or death.

2. In such illnesses the cure is also in part social. The curer doesn’t just cure the physical symptoms, but also attempts to repair the social problem.

a. Among the Ndembu of Zambia, illness is thought to be caused by the punitive actions of ancestral ghosts or spells cast by witches or sorcerers.

b. In the cure, a native doctor asks about the patient’s social relations. Have there been quarrels? How is the patient’s marriage? The doctor asks those with whom the patient has quarreled to attend a curing ceremony in which both the patient and acquaintances will present different complaints. The ceremony culminates with the doctor extracting an object from the patient’s body.

3. Such explanations implicitly recognize that social stress can produce physical illness and that one can treat it by treating the stress.

4. Similar concepts exist in Western thinking, for instance stress induced due to the death of a spouse, moving to a new job or house, or even the stress of holidays can increase the incidence of physical illness.

vi. Traditional curing may also be cheaper than more technologically based forms of curing.

1. Technical advances have increased the cost of medicine in general.

33


2. For many patients, the expense pushes medical care beyond their means.

3. As traditional forms of curing are lost or discouraged, some individuals lose access to any sort of medical care.

Question 2.5: Why are simpler societies disappearing? I. Extinct people

A. Relations between the modern world and small groups wanting to retain their traditional way of life have been poor.

i. Modern societies are better armed and organized and can displace such groups.

ii. Even the isolation of hunting-gathering groups does not protect them.B. The Ona (or Selk’nam) of Tierra del Fuego

i. The Ona lived on the island of Tierra del Fuego off the southern tip of South America.

ii. After encounters with Europeans in the 1870s and 1880s, they were exposed to measles, syphilis, and tuberculosis, to which they had no resistance.

iii. European miners and sheepherders moving into the area hunted down and killed Ona with impunity.

iv. Argentine soldiers took Ona people to missions stations or kept them as servants.

v. Ona moved further and further into the interior of the island, while hunters and ranchers systematically killed the local game.

vi. Ona began stealing European sheep for food so the ranchers and farmers began killing Ona and receiving bounty payments for those that they killed.

vii. In the early twentieth century, Europeans began building lumber camps in the remaining forests where Ona lived in isolation.

viii. In 1974, the last surviving Ona died.ix. The extermination of indigenous groups is not unusual and small groups

are being hunted and killed in such places as Brazil.C. Cultural devastation and radical hope.

i. What does it mean to experience cultural devastation?1. Understanding this will help us understand culture.2. Understanding this will help us understand the nature of cultural

change.ii. A key example of cultural devastation is what happened to the indigenous

peoples of the New World.1. At the time Columbus arrived in the New World, there were

hundreds of different indigenous societies.2. As many as 90% of indigenous populations died after exposure to

European diseases.3. Indigenous people continued to experience devastation as

European settlers moved west into their traditional territories.

34


4. Indigenous plains peoples, including the Lakota, Cheyenne, Crow and others, adapted their culture to the horse and the buffalo, competing over territory and following herds, but from about 1850 to 1880, such groups were forced onto reservations and became dependent on government rations to replace the buffalo which had been hunted to near extinction.

5. In 1930, the chief of the Crow, Plenty Coups, told his story to Frank B. Linderman.

a. Plenty Coups described his traditional life as a hunter and warrior.

b. He would not talk about what happened after the Crow had been reservationized and the buffalo were killed.

c. Plenty Coups said, “…But when the buffalo went away, the hearts of my people fell to the ground and they could not lift them up again. After this, nothing happened.”

6. Drawing on the Crow example, philosopher Jonathan Lear tries to explain what living through cultural devastation is like.

a. In the early nineteenth century Crow and other plains peoples lived through hunting buffalo, warfare and raiding.

b. These factors permeated society: children’s names were drawn from raiding tales; wives displayed their husbands’ trophies; religion was suffused with symbols of war and bravery.

c. “Counting coups” or marking territory was a mark of bravery and people said that it was better to die young in battle than to die of old age.

d. The arrival of the Europeans limited and decreased the territory of the Crow so that they struggled further with other plains groups for what remained.

e. Such struggles ended only with forced settlement and the extermination of the buffalo.

f. From 1851 through 1882, the Crow entered into various treaties with the U.S. government in which their acreage and supplies were repeatedly reduced. In 1882, during a move to yet another reservation, epidemics struck, killing many.

g. Nothing that had formerly had meaning in Crow culture had meaning anymore, in fact, “nothing happened.”

7. Plenty Coups and a dream visiona. At the age of 9, Plenty Coups went on a spiritual journey or

vision quest, seeking his destiny.b. He received a dream in which he saw the buffalo arrive and

then disappear, to be replaced by spotted animals, and visions of himself as an elder.

c. Plenty Coups told his dream to the elder Yellow Bear.

35


d. Yellow Bear said the dream meant that in Plenty Coups’s lifetime the buffalo would disappear and be replaced by the Europeans’ spotted cattle; that if Plenty Coups and his people remained strong and paid attention they would not fall before the Europeans as others had.

8. Lear suggests that Plenty Coups may have understood his dream as a way of reinterpreting how to survive such cultural devastation, to move forward with what Lear terms radical hope.

a. One had no understanding of what one was hoping for, only that some good would come out of it.

b. It helped avoid despair.9. Based on his dream the Crow voted to ally themselves with the

U.S. against their traditional Plains enemies.a. While Crow treaties were consistently broken, they were

never completely displaced from their land.b. Plenty Coups believed that his dream had in fact come to

pass, and by listening and paying attention he had battled to keep his land and had won.

Suggested Exercises

Exercise 2.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Civilization

Make a list of what you think are the advantages and disadvantages of civilization and the advantages and disadvantages of life 10,000 years ago.

I use this as a group exercise because it gets students talking among themselves about issues they relate to, but it can be done individually as well. It is a simple exercise, but it is useful for a number of reasons. It requires students to make explicit some of their values about their own and others' ways of life. It also supplies some useful information that instructors can refer to throughout the course when talking about American culture. Before students prepare their statements, I usually provide them with a brief excerpt from the film The Hunters or a brief description of a gathering and hunting society. Generally students describe life 10,000 years ago as being harder (less food, more sickness, more labor intensive, more infant death) but socially more cohesive (stronger families, etc.), while life today is described as easier (better medical treatment, better food, improved travel and communication, etc.) but socially complex (family breakdown, prejudice and racism, crime, etc.).

As each group or individual reports, I record the responses on the blackboard so that students can see their ideas publicly recorded and contributing to class discussion.

36


Exercise 2.2: Choosing between Hunting and Gathering and Agriculture

THE SITUATION: The year is approximately 10,000 BC. You are a group of elders of a hunting-and-gathering group. Your band numbers some 80 people. For as you long as you can remember, you have lived by gathering nuts, roots, fruits, and other foodstuff, and by hunting wild game. Your territory has always been adequate to supply the necessary food for members of the group, but recently people have noticed that they have to travel greater distances to collect food or to find game. Moreover, the territory that you consider your own now overlaps with other hunting and gathering groups.

Like most hunting and gathering peoples, you know how to plant crops and harvest them, and you have come to the realization that there is sufficient wild wheat, yams, maize or other vegetable foodstuff to support your group as long as you cultivate it (plant it, save seeds for replanting, etc.), harvest it when it is ripe, store it, and settle down next to the stored food. A group of younger members of the band, tired of traveling greater distances in search of food, and fearful of conflict with neighboring bands whose territory overlaps yours, advocate settling down and taking advantage of wild crops.

THE PROBLEM: Should you take the advice of the younger members of the group, begin to harvest and store wild foods and settle down in relatively permanent villages?

If you say yes, you need to give reasons why this is necessary in order to convince others in the group who are against the move. You must tell them what the consequences of not settling down would be.

If you say no, you need to be able to defend your decision to the younger members of the group, and explain to them the consequences of settling down. You also need to tell them the conditions under which you would take their advice.

This exercise is a simple but effective group simulation that gets students thinking and talking about the pros and cons of a gathering-and-hunting subsistence and horticulture. I have gotten surprisingly sophisticated responses regarding the hazards of permanent settlements. Done in groups, the collaborative exercise generally produces from students the major points I would make about the shift from gathering and hunting to agriculture. It can also be done individually as a take-home exercise, or as a 10-minute in-class writing exercise.

Exercise 2.3: Reasons for Starvation and Hunger

List some of the factors that you think are responsible for world hunger and starvation.

I use this as a 5-minute starter before discussing the reasons for world hunger. Students generally list such things as overpopulation, drought, primitive technology, and primitive agricultural techniques.

37


Exercise 2.4: The Efficacy of Magical Cures

Before this exercise, students are shown a traditional curing ceremony on video or film. There are many available (see Suggested Films for Question 2.4). I do it as a group exercise, giving the group about 10 to 15 minutes to formulate a response. The ceremonial curing ceremony you have witnessed is similar to many others around the world that have been used for probably thousands of years. Your task is to offer some reasons why people continue to use ceremonial cures, and why or how they might be effective in healing illness or disease.

This is another of those exercises that, done in groups, generally elicits student responses close to what I would have said in lecture. Commonly they mention psychosomatic illness or medicine, and some mention the therapeutic benefits of group support. Only a few times have students mentioned that usually sick people get better no matter what is done.

Exercise 2.5: Modernizing the Ju/wasi

You are members of a task force of a government that has been asked to evaluate the conditions of the Ju/wasi. Another group of government officials, distressed over the primitive ways of the Ju/wasi, had recommended that they should begin to enjoy the benefits of civilization. Specifically, the group had recommended that the government should settle the Ju/wasi in permanent villages, dig wells to ensure a steady water supply, distribute domesticated animals to ensure a steady food supply, and introduce modern health services. The group also had recommended that jobs be found for the Ju/wasi.

You have toured the area and spoken to some of the Ju/wasi. Your specific job is to evaluate the recommendations of the previous government task force and then make your own recommendations to the government on how the lives of the Ju/wasi could be improved. You may agree or disagree with the previous panel, but you must give reasons for your recommendations.

I have used this problem as a group exercise prior to showing Marshall's film Bushmen of the Kalahari. If you have doubts about the effectiveness of group work in the classroom, try it. When I used it students would inevitably come up with almost all of the negative consequences of technological innovation that Marshall documents in his film.

Suggested Films

Question 2.1

The Hunters. The Pennsylvania State University, Audio-Visual Services, Special Services Building, University Park, PA 16802. 73 minutes.John Marshall's classic about a !Kung giraffe hunt. Somewhat outdated with its emphasis on hunting as the major mode of !Kung subsistence, but effective nevertheless as a depiction of hunting and gathering.

38


N!ai: The Story of a !Kung Woman. Documentary Educational Resources, 101 Morse St., Watertown, MA 02172. 59 minutes. Remarkable film biography of a !Kung woman, beginning with her early years when the !Kung lived primarily as gatherers and hunters, until they were resettled in a reserve run by the South African government. Depicts the changes in !Kung society as a consequence of acculturation. Contains bits of other !Kung films such as The Hunters and N/um Tchai: The Trance Dance of the Bushmen.

The Gods Must be Crazy. Widely available. 1 hr. 49 minutes.Worth showing excerpts in conjunction with N!ai: Story of a !Kung Woman (a bit of the filming is shown in N!ai) to compare the director’s assumptions about Ju/wasi culture.

Question 2.2

Japanese Farmers. The Pennsylvania State University, Audio-Visual Services, Special Services Building, University Park, PA 16802. 17 minutes. Good film to illustrate the labor required to obtain a maximum yield from a small amount of land.

Slash and Burn Agriculture. The Pennsylvania State University, Audio-Visual Services, Special Services Building, University Park, PA 16802. 17 minutes. Illustrates the process of slash and burn agriculture in eastern Nicaragua and the similarity between the cultivated plot and the forest it replaces.

Question 2.3

Sharing the Land. University of Missouri--Columbia, Academic Support Center, 505 E. Stewart Rd., Columbia, MO 65211. 20 minutes. One segment of The Politics of Food series. This segment describes how growing poverty, hunger, and landlessness for peasants are the price that Brazil paid for modernization. Other segments document the reasons for famine in Africa and Pakistan, or explore why hunger has little to do with famine and much to do with poverty and the transformation of food into a commodity.

Dani Sweet Potatoes. University of California Extension Media Center, 2176 Shattuck Ave., Berkeley, CA 94704. 19 minutes. Documents sweet potato horticulture in New Guinea.

An Ecology of Mind. PBS Video, 55 minutes. One episode in David Mayberry-Lewis's Millennium: Tribal Wisdom and the Modern World film series. The film contrasts the attempts of Western societies to dominate and control nature with the attempt of tribal peoples to seek harmony with nature.

39


Question 2.4

Eduardo the Healer. The Pennsylvania State University, Audio-Visual Services, Special Services Building, University Park, PA 16802. 54 minutes. Documentary portrait of a Peruvian fisherman and healer, containing a dramatic sequence in which he heals a young man of depression.

N/um Tchai. Documentary Educational Resources, 101 Morse St., Watertown, MA 02172. 20 minutes. An account of a !Kung curing ceremony filmed in 1957 which illustrates the use of trance in healing. Students will need a brief introduction to !Kung beliefs about medicine and healing to get the most out of the film. A resource guide is available with the film from Documentary Educational Resources, 101 Morse St., Watertown, MA 02172.

Spite: An African Prophet-Healer. Filmakers Library, 124 E. 40th Street, New York, N.Y. 10016. 54 minutes. Focuses on a traditional healer who tracks down disputes (the sources of illness) and draws on various cultural traditions for healing. An excellent film to illustrate the interpersonal factors in disease and how traditional societies deal with them.

Seven Nights and Seven Days. Filmakers Library, 124 E. 40th Street, New York, N.Y. 10016. 58 minutes. A healing ceremony in Senegal which illustrates the role of community support in healing.

Inventing Reality. PBS Video, 11858 Grange Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90025. 55 minutes. A segment of David Mayberry-Lewis's Millennium series. Highlights an effort by a Mexican doctor and a tribal shaman to battle an epidemic of measles in a Huichol Indian village. Contrasts tribal cures with a visit to a cancer clinic.

Question 2.5

Australia's Twilight of the Dreaming. University of Washington, Instructional Media Services, Kane Bldg., DG-10, Seattle, WA 98195. 59 minutes. A moving film about the threatened cultural extinction of the Gagudju. A particularly good film about how, with the threatened disappearance of a culture, the world loses a perspective on the environment that it may badly need. Strong emphasis on the interdependence of people and environment.

Baka: People of the Forest. National Geographic Society, P.O. Box 2118, Washington, D.C. 20013-2118. 60 minutes. A beautiful film about life in the African rain forests and its threatened extinction. Great sequences on child rearing and family solidarity.

40


Bushmen of the Kalahari. The Pennsylvania State University, Audio-Visual Services, Special Services Building, University Park, PA 16802. 50 minutes. John Marshall's 1975 film about the impact of acculturation on the !Kung. Excellent segment on the dangers of trying to introduce technological solutions to subsistence problems.

Cannibal Tours. Direct Cinema Ltd., Los Angeles, CA. 77 Minutes.Following the Sepik River in New Guinea, interaction between Western tourists and Papua New Guineans is recorded. Both the tourists and the tribespeople comment on each other, highlighting both culture clash and the ways in which the two groups are alike.

The Ona People: Life and Death in Tierra del Feugo. Documentary Educational Resources, 101 Morse St., Watertown, MA 02172. 55 minutes. Moving film about the history of the extermination of the Ona. Traces their fate from initial contact until the death of the last Ona in 1973.

The Last of the Cuiva. Films Incorporated, 5547 N. Ravenswood Ave., Chicago, IL 60640-1199. 65 minutes. Tells of the cultural decline of the Cuiva of northeast Colombia, and the systematic takeover of their lands by ranchers. Excellent illustration for students that the process by which many cultures were destroyed (e.g., the Ona) continues today.

The Earth Is Our Mother: Two Indian Tribes in South America. Filmakers Library, 124 E. 40th Street, New York, N.Y. 10016. 50 minutes. Marvelous film about the impact of civilization on traditional peoples. Contrasts a Venezuelan group whose lives were culturally impoverished with a group in Colombia that rejected foreign influences.

Contact: The Yanomami Indians of Brazil. Filmakers Library, 124 E. 40th Street, New York, N.Y. 10016. 28 minutes. Depicts the impact of outside contact on the Yanomami of the Brazilian Amazon. Since the area has been declared a national security zone by the Brazilian government, Filmakers were smuggled into the zone.

The Spirit of Kuna Yala. Filmakers Library, 124 E. 40th Street, New York, N.Y. 10016. 59 minutes. An excellent film for illustrating the knowledge and wisdom that indigenous people have to offer regarding the deterioration of the environment, and how we are threatened with the loss of this wisdom.

Millennium: The Shock of the Other. PBS Video, 11858 Grange Ave, Los Angeles, CA 90025. 55 minutes. The first episode of David Mayberry-Lewis's Millennium series. Could probably also be used for discussion on the role of anthropology and anthropologists, but also raises issues about the task of anthropology in trying to halt the disappearance of tribal peoples.

41


In the Image of the White Man. Native American Telecommunications, P.O. Box 8311, 1800 North 33rd Street, Lincoln, NE, 68501. 55 minutes The story of the attempt by the United States government in the 19th and early 20th century to destroy indigenous culture through the mechanism of the Indian schools. The focus is on Richard Pratt and the Carlisle Indian School, but the film movingly describes the philosophy behind the schools and the often tragic affects on individuals and families. A remarkable eye-opener for undergraduates.

Ishi: The Last of his Tribe. University of California Extension Media Center, 2176 Shattuck Ave., Berkeley, CA 94704. 55 minutes The remarkable story of Ishi, the last Yahi and Alfred Kroeber, the American anthropologist who was assigned as his guardian after Ishi was found huddled in a barn by a California farmer. The film tells Ishi’s story and raises the issue of scientific ethics as well as portraying the government policies that permitted the hunting down and killing of indigenous peoples.

Trinkets and Beads. Icarus Films, 32 Court Street, Brooklyn, NY 11201. 52 minutes.The attempt by the Texas oil company MAXUS to move into and take over regions of the Amazon rainforest for oil exploration and extraction. The story focuses on the indigenous Huarani people, who resist the company’s attempts and even bring suit in U.S. courts. This film shows the ways that indigenous peoples resist and challenge outsiders.

Internet Resources

Question 2.3

For information on how countries got into debt and what can be done about it, you can check these sites. The first two are at the IMF and The World Bank, agencies that many blame for the debt. The third site, Third World Network, portrays a different view of the debt. Debt Initiative for the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries—IMFhttp://www.imf.org/external/np/hipc/hipc.htm Debt Relief Web Sitehttp://www.worldbank.org/hipc/index.html Third World Networkwww.twnside.org.sg You can also find some readings on the subject at the author's web site at: Readings on the Capitalisthttp://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/richard.robbins/legacy/capitalist_readings.htm

Question 2.4

Inequality is one of the biggest killers in the world. It denies health care to billions, largely because they do not have the means to pay for it. You can get some idea of the relationship between disease and level of economic development at the World Health Organization Website at: http://www.who.int/whr/1998/fig6e.jpg The United Nations provides some information on infant mortality around the world at:

42

http://www.who.int/whr/1998/fig6e.jpg

http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/richard.robbins/legacy/capitalist_readings.htm

http://www.twnside.org.sg/


http://www.worldbank.org/hipc/index.html

http://www.worldbank.org/hipc/index.html

http://www.imf.org/external/np/hipc/hipc.htm

http://www.imf.org/external/np/hipc/hipc.htm


http://unsd.ics.trieste.it/pmappl/unesco/sld022.htm Resources on Disease and Healthhttp://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/richard.robbins/legacy/health_resources.htm There is also a collection of readings at: Readings on Health and Diseasehttp://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/richard.robbins/legacy/disease_readings.htm

Question 2.5

One accepted definition of indigenous peoples is that adopted by the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations proposed by Jose Martinez Cobo, and posted here at the Grand Council of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee) Website at: http://www.gcc.ca/archive/article.php?id=71You can find the identity of indigenous nations that exist near you at Nations of the Indigenous One World at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/SOWIP_web.pdfAt their Website Human Rights of Indigenous Peoples, http://legacy.earlham.edu/~libr/content/resources/subject/pags.html#humanStephen Renard, Jaime Simmermaker, and Amy Stein provide an excellent discussion of the issues involved in the human and political rights of indigenous peoples. One of the most prominent groups involved in protecting indigenous rights is Cultural Survival (http://www.cs.org.) Founded in 1972 by anthropologist David Maybury-Lewis, Cultural Survival has sponsored research, forums, and publications dedicated to helping indigenous peoples protect themselves and their resources. You can also find links to other sites at the above or at: Resources on Indigenous Peopleshttp://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/richard.robbins/legacy/indigenous_peoples.htm or Third World Networkhttp://www.twnside.org.sg/

Suggested Readings

Question 2.1

Spradley and McCurdy, Conformity and Conflict:The Hunters: Scarce Resources in the Kalahari by Richard Borshay Lee

Podolefsky & Brown, Applying Cultural Anthropology: The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race by Jared Diamond

Angeloni, Anthropology 05/06:Understanding Eskimo Science by Richard NelsonMystique of the Masai by Ettagale Blauer

Phillip Whitten, Anthropology: Contemporary Perspectives:In Search of the Affluent Society by Allen JohnsonThe Stone-Age Diet: Cuisine Sauvage by Melvin Konner

Haviland, Gordon and Vivanco, Talking About People:

43


http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/richard.robbins/legacy/indigenous_peoples.htm

http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/SOWIP_web.pdf

http://www.gcc.ca/archive/article.php?id=71

http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/richard.robbins/legacy/disease_readings.htm

http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/richard.robbins/legacy/health_resources.htm

http://unsd.ics.trieste.it/pmappl/unesco/sld022.htm


Nomads on Notice by Daniel Stiles

Question 2.2

Spradley and McCurdy, Conformity and Conflict:Jared Diamond, Domestication and the Evolution of Disease

Phillip Whitten, Anthropology: Contemporary Perspectives: India's Sacred Cow, by Marvin Harris

Question 2.3

Spradley and McCurdy, Conformity and Conflict:Cocaine and the Economic Deterioration of Bolivia by Jack McIves WeatherfordThe Kayapo Resistance by Terence TurnerMother's Love: Death Without Weeping by Nancy Scheper-Hughs

Angeloni, Anthropology 05/06:Why Can’t People Feed Themselves? by Frances Moore Lappé

Podolefsky & Brown, Applying Cultural Anthropology:Two Rights Make A Wrong: Indigenous Peoples vs. Environmental Protection Agencies by Richard Reed

Haviland, Gordon and Vivanco, Talking About People:The Anti-Politics Machine: “Development and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho by James Ferguson with Larry Lohmann

John H. McDonald, The Applied Anthropology Reader: The Great Sisal Scheme by Daniel R. Gross

Question 2.4

Angeloni, Anthropology 05/06: Eyes of the Ngangas: Ethnomedicine and Power in Central African Republic by Arthur C. Lehmann

Podolefsky & Brown, Applying Cultural Anthropology:AIDS As Human Suffering by Paul Farmer and Arthur KleinmanAncient Bodies, Modern Customs and Our Health by Elizabeth D. Whitaker

Angeloni, Anthropology 05/06:The Arrow of Disease by Jared Diamond

Devita and Armstrong, Distant Mirrors: Learning to Hug: An Anthropologist’s Experience in North America

Question 2.5

Spradley and McCurdy, Conformity and Conflict:Adaptive Failure: Easter's End by Jared Diamond

Podolefsky & Brown, Applying Cultural Anthropology: The Price of Progress by John H. Bodley;

44


Angeloni, Anthropology 05/06:A Pacific Haze: Alcohol and Drugs in Oceania by Mac MarshallThe Last Americans by Jared DiamondWhen Will America be Discovered by Jack Weatherford

Phillip Whitten, Anthropology: Contemporary Perspectives:Requiem for a Lost People by William W. HowellsSocieties on the Brink by David Maybury-LewisShamans and Their Lore May Vanish with the Forest by Daniel GolemanThe Last Tribal Battle by Diana Jean Schemo

Haviland, Gordon and Vivanco, Talking About People: Knowledge, Contingent Classification: Animals in the Highlands of New Guinea by Paul SillitoeShuar Migrants and Shrunken Heads Face to Face in a New York Museum by Steven L. Rubenstein

Case Study: Doing it Better

Suggested Readings

Spradley and McCurdy, Conformity and Conflict: Forest Development the Indian Way by Richard K. Reed

Haviland, Gordon and Vivanco, Talking About People: Conservation Policy and Indigenous Peoples by Marcus ColchesterCounter-Development in the Andes by Frédérique Apffel-MarglinThe Domestication of Wood in Haiti: A Case Study in Applied Evolution by Gerald F. Murray

John H. McDonald, The Applied Anthropology Reader: An Appropriate Role for Postcolonial Applied Anthropologists by Laura ThompsonBasic Concepts and Techniques of Rapid Appraisal by James BeebeImplications of the Cultural Conservation Report for Social Impact Assessment by Benita J. HowellThe Significance of Settlement Pattern for Community Participation in Health: Lessons from Africa by Edward C. Green and Raymond B. IselyThe Illusion of Local Sustainability and Self-Sufficiency: Famine in a Border Area of Northwestern Zambia by Art HansenAnimal Agriculture for the Regeneration of Degraded Tropical Forests by Ronald Nigh

45

Chapter 2: The Meaning of Progress -...

Documents

Transcript of Chapter 2: The Meaning of Progress -...