Chapter 2 Cultural Chapter 2 Cultural DiversityDiversity

Society and CultureSociety and Culture

What Is a Society?What Is a Society? Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies NormsNorms Status and RolesStatus and Roles CultureCulture Hierarchy of CulturesHierarchy of Cultures The Interaction of CulturesThe Interaction of Cultures

Overview:Overview:

The society in which we live determines The society in which we live determines everything from the food we eat to the everything from the food we eat to the choices we make. A society consists of choices we make. A society consists of people who share a territory, who interact people who share a territory, who interact with each other, and who share a culture. with each other, and who share a culture. Some societies are, in fact, groups of people Some societies are, in fact, groups of people united by friendship or common interests. united by friendship or common interests. Our respective societies teach us how to Our respective societies teach us how to behave, what to believe, and how we’ll be behave, what to believe, and how we’ll be punished if we don’t follow the laws or punished if we don’t follow the laws or customs in place.customs in place.

Overview:Overview:

Sociologists study the way people Sociologists study the way people learn about their own society’s learn about their own society’s cultures and how they discover their cultures and how they discover their place within those cultures. They also place within those cultures. They also examine the ways in which people examine the ways in which people from differing cultures interact and from differing cultures interact and sometimes clash—and how mutual sometimes clash—and how mutual understanding and respect might be understanding and respect might be reached.reached.

What Is a Society?What Is a Society?

According to sociologists, a society is According to sociologists, a society is a group of people with common a group of people with common territory, interaction, and culture. territory, interaction, and culture. Social groups consist of two or more Social groups consist of two or more people who interact and identify with people who interact and identify with one another.one another.

What Is a Society?What Is a Society? Territory:Territory: Most countries Most countries

have formal boundaries have formal boundaries and territory that the world and territory that the world recognizes as theirs. recognizes as theirs. However, a society’s However, a society’s boundaries don’t have to boundaries don’t have to be geopolitical borders, be geopolitical borders, such as the one between such as the one between the United States and the United States and Canada. Instead, members Canada. Instead, members of a society, as well as of a society, as well as nonmembers, must nonmembers, must recognize particular land recognize particular land as belonging to that as belonging to that society.society.

What Is a Society?What Is a Society? Interaction:Interaction: Members Members

of a society must come of a society must come in contact with one in contact with one another. If a group of another. If a group of people within a country people within a country has no regular contact has no regular contact with another group, with another group, those groups cannot be those groups cannot be considered part of the considered part of the same society. same society. Geographic distance Geographic distance and language barriers and language barriers can separate societies can separate societies within a country.within a country.

What Is a Society?What Is a Society? Culture:Culture: People of the People of the

same society share same society share aspects of their culture, aspects of their culture, such as language or such as language or beliefs. Culture refers beliefs. Culture refers to the language, to the language, values, beliefs, values, beliefs, behavior, and material behavior, and material objects that constitute objects that constitute a people’s way of life. It a people’s way of life. It is a defining element of is a defining element of society.society.

PLURALISMPLURALISM The United States is a The United States is a

society composed of many society composed of many groups of people, some of groups of people, some of whom originally belonged whom originally belonged to other societies. to other societies.

Sociologists consider the Sociologists consider the United States a pluralistic United States a pluralistic society, meaning it is built society, meaning it is built of many groups. of many groups.

As societies modernize, As societies modernize, they attract people from they attract people from countries where there may countries where there may be economic hardship, be economic hardship, political unrest, or religious political unrest, or religious persecution. persecution.

AssimilationAssimilation Some practices that are Some practices that are

common in other societies common in other societies will inevitably offend or will inevitably offend or contradict the values and contradict the values and beliefs of the new society. beliefs of the new society.

Groups seeking to become Groups seeking to become part of a pluralistic society part of a pluralistic society often have to give up many often have to give up many of their original traditions in of their original traditions in order to fit in, a process order to fit in, a process known as assimilation.known as assimilation.

In pluralistic societies, In pluralistic societies, groups do not have to give groups do not have to give up all of their former beliefs up all of their former beliefs and practices. Many groups and practices. Many groups within a pluralistic society within a pluralistic society retain their ethnic retain their ethnic traditions.traditions.

EqualityEquality

In a truly pluralistic society, no one In a truly pluralistic society, no one group is officially considered more group is officially considered more influential than another. However, influential than another. However, powerful informal mechanisms, such powerful informal mechanisms, such as prejudice and discrimination, work as prejudice and discrimination, work to keep many groups out of the to keep many groups out of the political process or out of certain political process or out of certain neighborhoods.neighborhoods.

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies

The society we live in did not spring The society we live in did not spring up overnight; human societies have up overnight; human societies have evolved slowly over many millennia. evolved slowly over many millennia. However, through out history, However, through out history, technological developments have technological developments have sometimes brought about dramatic sometimes brought about dramatic change that has propelled human change that has propelled human society into its next age.society into its next age.

Social RevolutionsSocial Revolutions

SocietySociety RevolutionRevolution ResultResult

Hunting and gathering Society

First Social Revolution: Domestication of plants and animals.

Horticultural society and pastoral society.

Horticultural Society and Pastoral Society

Second Social Revolution: Agriculture, with the invention of the plow.

Agricultural Society

Agricultural SocietyThird Social Revolution: Industry, with the invention of the steam engine.

Industrial Society

Industrial SocietyFourth Social Revolution: Information, with the invention of modern computers

Postindustrial Society

HUNTING AND GATHERING HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETIESSOCIETIES

Hunting and Hunting and gathering societies gathering societies survive by hunting survive by hunting game and game and gathering edible gathering edible plants. Until about plants. Until about 12,000 years ago, 12,000 years ago, all societies were all societies were hunting and hunting and gathering societies.gathering societies.

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIESHORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES

In a horticultural In a horticultural society, hand tools society, hand tools are used to tend are used to tend crops. crops.

The first horticultural The first horticultural societies sprang up societies sprang up about 10,000—about 10,000—12,000 years ago in 12,000 years ago in the most fertile the most fertile areas of the Middle areas of the Middle East, Latin America, East, Latin America, and Asia. and Asia.

PASTORAL SOCIETIESPASTORAL SOCIETIES A pastoral society relies on A pastoral society relies on

the domestication and the domestication and breeding of animals for food. breeding of animals for food.

Some geographic regions, Some geographic regions, such as the desert regions of such as the desert regions of North Africa, cannot support North Africa, cannot support crops, so these societies crops, so these societies learned how to domesticate learned how to domesticate and breed animals. and breed animals.

The members of a pastoral The members of a pastoral society must move only society must move only when the grazing land when the grazing land ceases to be usable. Many ceases to be usable. Many pastoral societies still exist pastoral societies still exist in Africa, Latin America, and in Africa, Latin America, and parts of Asia.parts of Asia.

AGRICULTURAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIESSOCIETIES

The invention of the The invention of the plow during the plow during the horticultural and horticultural and pastoral societies is pastoral societies is considered the second considered the second social revolution, and social revolution, and it led to the it led to the establishment of establishment of agricultural societies agricultural societies approximately five approximately five thousand to six thousand to six thousand years ago. thousand years ago.

INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIESINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES An industrial society uses advanced An industrial society uses advanced

sources of energy, rather than humans sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to run large machinery. and animals, to run large machinery.

People and goods traversed much longer People and goods traversed much longer distances because of innovations in distances because of innovations in transportation, such as the train and the transportation, such as the train and the steamship.steamship.

Rural areas lost population because Rural areas lost population because more and more people were engaged in more and more people were engaged in factory work and had to move to the factory work and had to move to the cities.cities.

Fewer people were needed in Fewer people were needed in agriculture, and societies became agriculture, and societies became urbanized, which means that the urbanized, which means that the majority of the population lived within majority of the population lived within commuting distance of a major city.commuting distance of a major city.

Suburbs grew up around cities to provide Suburbs grew up around cities to provide city-dwellers with alternative places to city-dwellers with alternative places to live.live.

POSTINDUSTRIAL POSTINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIESSOCIETIES

A postindustrial society, the A postindustrial society, the type of society that has type of society that has developed over the past developed over the past few decades, features an few decades, features an economy based on services economy based on services and technology, not and technology, not production. There are three production. There are three major characteristics of a major characteristics of a postindustrial economy.postindustrial economy.

Focus on ideas: Tangible Focus on ideas: Tangible goods no longer drive the goods no longer drive the economy.economy.

Need for higher education.Need for higher education. Shift in workplace from Shift in workplace from

cities to homes.cities to homes.

MASS SOCIETYMASS SOCIETY As industrialized societies As industrialized societies

grow and develop, they grow and develop, they become increasingly become increasingly different from their less different from their less industrialized counterparts. industrialized counterparts.

As they become larger, they As they become larger, they evolve into large, impersonal evolve into large, impersonal mass societies. mass societies.

In a mass society, individual In a mass society, individual achievement is valued over achievement is valued over kinship ties, and people kinship ties, and people often feel isolated from one often feel isolated from one another. another.

Personal incomes are Personal incomes are generally high, and there is generally high, and there is great diversity among great diversity among people.people.

NormsNorms

Every society has expectations about Every society has expectations about how its members should and should how its members should and should not behave. A norm is a guideline or not behave. A norm is a guideline or an expectation for behavior. Each an expectation for behavior. Each society makes up its own rules for society makes up its own rules for behavior and decides when those behavior and decides when those rules have been violated and what to rules have been violated and what to do about it. Norms change do about it. Norms change constantly.constantly.

HOW NORMS DIFFERHOW NORMS DIFFER

Norms differ widely among societies, Norms differ widely among societies, and they can even differ from group and they can even differ from group to group within the same society.to group within the same society.

HOW NORMS DIFFERHOW NORMS DIFFER

Different Different settings:settings: Wherever we go, Wherever we go, expectations are expectations are placed on our placed on our behavior. Even behavior. Even within the same within the same society, these society, these norms change from norms change from setting to setting.setting to setting.

HOW NORMS DIFFERHOW NORMS DIFFER

Different countries:Different countries: Norms are Norms are place-specific, and what is place-specific, and what is considered appropriate in one considered appropriate in one country may be considered highly country may be considered highly inappropriate in another.inappropriate in another.

HOW NORMS DIFFERHOW NORMS DIFFER

Different time Different time periods:periods: Appropriate and Appropriate and inappropriate inappropriate behavior often behavior often changes changes dramatically from dramatically from one generation to one generation to the next. Norms can the next. Norms can and do shift over and do shift over time.time.

NORM CATEGORIESNORM CATEGORIES

Sociologists have separated norms Sociologists have separated norms into four categories: folkways, mores, into four categories: folkways, mores, laws, and taboos.laws, and taboos.

FolkwaysFolkways A folkway is a norm for A folkway is a norm for

everyday behavior that everyday behavior that people follow for the people follow for the sake of convenience or sake of convenience or tradition. tradition.

People practice People practice folkways simply folkways simply because they have because they have done things that way done things that way for a long time. for a long time.

Violating a folkway Violating a folkway does not usually have does not usually have serious consequences serious consequences

MoresMores A more (pronounced A more (pronounced

MORF-ay) is a norm MORF-ay) is a norm based on morality, based on morality, or definitions of or definitions of right and wrong. right and wrong. Since mores have Since mores have moral significance, moral significance, people feel strongly people feel strongly about them, and about them, and violating a more violating a more usually results in usually results in disapproval. disapproval.

LawsLaws

A law is a norm A law is a norm that is written that is written down and enforced down and enforced by an official by an official agency. Violating a agency. Violating a law results in a law results in a specific specific punishment. punishment.

TaboosTaboos

A taboo is a norm A taboo is a norm that society holds that society holds so strongly that so strongly that violating it results violating it results in extreme disgust. in extreme disgust. The violator is The violator is often considered often considered unfit to live in that unfit to live in that society.society.

DEVIANCDEVIANC

Sociologists call the violation of a Sociologists call the violation of a norm deviance. norm deviance.

The word deviant has taken on the The word deviant has taken on the negative connotation of someone negative connotation of someone who behaves in disgusting or who behaves in disgusting or immoral ways, but to sociologists, a immoral ways, but to sociologists, a deviant is anyone who doesn’t deviant is anyone who doesn’t follow a norm, in either a good way follow a norm, in either a good way or a bad way. or a bad way.

DEVIANCDEVIANC Although deviance can Although deviance can

be good and even be good and even admirable, few admirable, few societies could tolerate societies could tolerate the chaos that would the chaos that would result from every result from every person doing whatever person doing whatever he or she pleased. he or she pleased.

Social control refers to Social control refers to the methods that the methods that societies devise to societies devise to encourage people to encourage people to observe norms. observe norms.

DEVIANCDEVIANC The most common The most common

method for maintaining method for maintaining social control is the use social control is the use of sanctions, which are of sanctions, which are socially, constructed socially, constructed expressions of approval expressions of approval or disapproval. or disapproval.

Sanctions can be Sanctions can be positive or negative, positive or negative, and the ways societies and the ways societies devise to positively or devise to positively or negatively sanction negatively sanction behaviors are limited behaviors are limited only by the society’s only by the society’s imagination.imagination.

Positive SanctionsPositive Sanctions

A positive sanction A positive sanction rewards someone rewards someone for following a for following a norm and serves to norm and serves to encourage the encourage the continuance of a continuance of a certain type of certain type of behavior.behavior.

Negative SanctionsNegative Sanctions A negative sanction is a A negative sanction is a

way of communicating way of communicating that a society, or some that a society, or some group in that society, group in that society, does not approve of a does not approve of a particular behavior. particular behavior. The optimal effect of a The optimal effect of a negative sanction is to negative sanction is to discourage the discourage the continuation of a continuation of a certain type of certain type of behavior.behavior.

Norms and Norms and ConsequencesConsequences

Norm Example Consequence for Violation

Folkway Wearing a suit to an interview.

Raised eyebrow

More Only married couples should live together.

Conflicts with family members, disapproval.

Law Laws against public nudity.

Imprisonment, monetary fine.

Taboo Eating human flesh. Visible signs of disgust, expulsion from society.

Status and RolesStatus and Roles Most people associate status with the Most people associate status with the

prestige of a person’s life style, education, or prestige of a person’s life style, education, or vocation. According to sociologists, status vocation. According to sociologists, status describes the position a person occupies in a describes the position a person occupies in a particular setting. We all occupy several particular setting. We all occupy several statuses and play the roles that may be statuses and play the roles that may be associated with them. A role is the set of associated with them. A role is the set of norms, values, behaviors, and personality norms, values, behaviors, and personality characteristics attached to a status. An characteristics attached to a status. An individual may occupy the statuses of individual may occupy the statuses of student, employee, and club president and student, employee, and club president and play one or more roles with each one.play one or more roles with each one.

ROLE CONFLICTROLE CONFLICT Role conflict results from the competing Role conflict results from the competing

demands of two or more roles that vie for demands of two or more roles that vie for our time and energy. our time and energy.

The more statuses we have, and the more The more statuses we have, and the more roles we take on, the more likely we are to roles we take on, the more likely we are to experience role conflict.experience role conflict.

A member of a non-industrialized society A member of a non-industrialized society generally has just a few statuses, such as generally has just a few statuses, such as spouse, parent, and villager. spouse, parent, and villager.

A typical middle class American woman, A typical middle class American woman, meanwhile, probably has many statuses, meanwhile, probably has many statuses, and therefore many roles. She may be a and therefore many roles. She may be a mother, wife, neighbor, member of the PTA, mother, wife, neighbor, member of the PTA, employee, boss, town council president, and employee, boss, town council president, and part-time student. part-time student.

Because people in modernized societies Because people in modernized societies have so many roles, they are more likely have so many roles, they are more likely than people in non-industrialized societies to than people in non-industrialized societies to experience role conflict.experience role conflict.

CultureCulture

CultureCulture is everything made, learned, is everything made, learned, or shared by the members of a or shared by the members of a society, including values, beliefs, society, including values, beliefs, behaviors, and material objects.behaviors, and material objects.

CultureCulture CultureCulture is learned, and it is learned, and it

varies tremendously from varies tremendously from society to society. society to society.

We begin learning our We begin learning our culture from the moment culture from the moment we’re born, as the people we’re born, as the people who raise us encourage who raise us encourage certain behaviors and certain behaviors and teach their version of right teach their version of right and wrong. and wrong.

Although cultures vary Although cultures vary dramatically, they all dramatically, they all consist of two parts: consist of two parts: material culture and material culture and nonmaterial culture.nonmaterial culture.

MATERIAL CULTUREMATERIAL CULTURE

Material culture Material culture consists of the consists of the concrete, visible concrete, visible parts of a culture, parts of a culture, such as food, such as food, clothing, cars, clothing, cars, weapons, and weapons, and buildings. buildings.

Aspects of material Aspects of material culture differ from culture differ from society to society. society to society.

NONMATERIAL CULTURENONMATERIAL CULTURE Nonmaterial culture consists of the Nonmaterial culture consists of the

intangible aspects of a culture, such intangible aspects of a culture, such as values and beliefs. as values and beliefs.

Nonmaterial culture consists of Nonmaterial culture consists of concepts and ideas that shape who concepts and ideas that shape who we are and make us different from we are and make us different from members of other societies.members of other societies.

A value is a culturally approved A value is a culturally approved concept about what is right or wrong, concept about what is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable. Values are desirable or undesirable. Values are a culture’s principles about how a culture’s principles about how things should be and differ greatly things should be and differ greatly from society to society.from society to society.

Beliefs are specific ideas that people Beliefs are specific ideas that people feel to be true. Values support feel to be true. Values support beliefs.beliefs.

Hierarchy of CulturesHierarchy of Cultures

In societies where there are different In societies where there are different kinds of people, one group is usually kinds of people, one group is usually larger or more powerful than the larger or more powerful than the others. Generally, societies consist of others. Generally, societies consist of a dominant culture, subcultures, and a dominant culture, subcultures, and countercultures.countercultures.

DOMINANT CULTUREDOMINANT CULTURE The dominant culture in a society is the The dominant culture in a society is the

group whose members are in the majority or group whose members are in the majority or who wield more power than other groups. who wield more power than other groups.

In the United States, the dominant culture is In the United States, the dominant culture is that of white, middle-class, Protestant that of white, middle-class, Protestant people of northern European descent. people of northern European descent.

There are more white people here than There are more white people here than African Americans, Latinos, Asian African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, or Native Americans, and there Americans, or Native Americans, and there are more middle-class people than there are are more middle-class people than there are rich or poor people.rich or poor people.

SUBCULTURESUBCULTURE A subculture is a group that lives differently from, but not opposed A subculture is a group that lives differently from, but not opposed

to, the dominant culture. to, the dominant culture. A subculture is a culture within a culture. A subculture is a culture within a culture. For example, Jews form a subculture in the largely Christian United For example, Jews form a subculture in the largely Christian United

States. States. Catholics also form a subculture, since the majority of Americans Catholics also form a subculture, since the majority of Americans

are Protestant. are Protestant. Members of these subcultures do belong to the dominant culture Members of these subcultures do belong to the dominant culture

but also have a material and nonmaterial culture specific to their but also have a material and nonmaterial culture specific to their subcultures.subcultures.

Religion is not the only defining aspect of a subculture. The Religion is not the only defining aspect of a subculture. The following elements can also define a subculture:following elements can also define a subculture:

– • • OccupationOccupation– • • Financial statusFinancial status– • • Political idealsPolitical ideals– • • Sexual orientationSexual orientation– • • AgeAge– • • Geographical locationGeographical location– • • HobbiesHobbies

COUNTERCULTURECOUNTERCULTURE

A counterculture is a subculture A counterculture is a subculture that opposes the dominant culture. that opposes the dominant culture.

The hippies of the 1960s were a The hippies of the 1960s were a counterculture, as they opposed counterculture, as they opposed the core values held by most the core values held by most citizens of the United States. citizens of the United States.

Not all countercultures are Not all countercultures are nonviolent. nonviolent.

The Interaction of The Interaction of CulturesCultures

When many different cultures live When many different cultures live together in one society, together in one society, misunderstandings, biases, and misunderstandings, biases, and judgments are inevitable—but fair judgments are inevitable—but fair evaluations, relationships, and learning evaluations, relationships, and learning experiences are also possible. Cultures experiences are also possible. Cultures cannot remain entirely separate, no cannot remain entirely separate, no matter how different they are, and the matter how different they are, and the resulting effects are varied and resulting effects are varied and widespread.widespread.

ETHNOCENTRISMETHNOCENTRISM

Ethnocentrism is the Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge tendency to judge another culture by another culture by the standards of the standards of one’s own culture. one’s own culture. Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism usually entails the usually entails the notion that one’s notion that one’s own culture is own culture is superior to everyone superior to everyone else’s.else’s.

CULTURAL RELATIVISMCULTURAL RELATIVISM The opposite of The opposite of

ethnocentrism is cultural ethnocentrism is cultural relativism—the relativism—the examination of a cultural examination of a cultural trait within the context trait within the context of that culture. Cultural of that culture. Cultural relativists try to relativists try to understand unfamiliar understand unfamiliar values and norms values and norms without judging them without judging them and without applying the and without applying the standards of their own standards of their own culture.culture.

CULTURE SHOCKCULTURE SHOCK

The practices of other The practices of other cultures can be and cultures can be and often are jarring, and often are jarring, and even the most adept even the most adept cultural relativist is not cultural relativist is not immune to culture immune to culture shock. Culture shock is shock. Culture shock is the surprise, the surprise, disorientation, and fear disorientation, and fear people can experience people can experience when they encounter a when they encounter a new culture.new culture.

CULTURE LAGCULTURE LAG In 1922, the sociologist William Ogburn coined In 1922, the sociologist William Ogburn coined

the term culture lag. the term culture lag. Culture lag refers to the tendency for changes in Culture lag refers to the tendency for changes in

material and nonmaterial culture to occur at material and nonmaterial culture to occur at different rates. different rates.

Ogburn proposed that, in general, changes in Ogburn proposed that, in general, changes in nonmaterial culture tend to lag behind changes in nonmaterial culture tend to lag behind changes in material culture, including technological material culture, including technological advances.advances.

Technology progresses at a rapid rate, but our Technology progresses at a rapid rate, but our feelings and beliefs about it, part of our feelings and beliefs about it, part of our nonmaterial culture, lag behind our knowledge of nonmaterial culture, lag behind our knowledge of how to enact technological change.how to enact technological change.

CULTURAL DIFFUSIONCULTURAL DIFFUSION

Cultural diffusion is the process Cultural diffusion is the process whereby an aspect of culture spreads whereby an aspect of culture spreads throughout a culture or from one throughout a culture or from one culture to another.culture to another.