Chapter 2 Brain and Behavior. Neuron and Its Parts Neuron: Individual nerve cell; 100 billion in...
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Transcript of Chapter 2 Brain and Behavior. Neuron and Its Parts Neuron: Individual nerve cell; 100 billion in...
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Chapter 2Brain and Behavior
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Neuron and Its Parts
• Neuron: Individual nerve cell; 100 billion in brain
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Neuron’s Parts
– Soma: Cell body; body of the neuron. Receives messages and sends messages down axon
– Axon: Fiber that carries information away from the cell body of a neuron
– Axon terminals: Branches that link the dendrites and somas of other neurons
– Dendrites: Receive messages from other neurons
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Fig. 2-1, p. 49
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Fig. 2-4, p. 51
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Video: Main Parts of the Neuron
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The Nerve Impulse
• Resting potential: Electrical charge of an inactive neuron
• Threshold: Trigger point for a neuron’s firing• Action Potential: Nerve impulse
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Fig. 2-2, p. 50
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More on Nerves
• Ion channels: Tiny openings through the axon membrane
• Negative after-potential: A drop in electrical charge below the resting potential
• Synapse: Microscopic space between two neurons over which messages pass
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Saltatory Conduction
• Process by which nerve impulses conducted down the axons of neurons coated with myelin jump from gap to gap in the myelin layer
• Myelin: A fatty layer coating some axons
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Fig. 2-5, p. 51
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Fig. 2-3, p. 50
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Video: Action Potential
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Video: Synaptic Transmission
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Neurotransmitters
• Chemicals that alter activity in neurons; brain chemicals
• Receptor site: Area on the surface of neurons and other cells that is sensitive to neurotransmitters or hormones
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Types of Neurotransmitters
– Acetylcholine: Activates muscles– Dopamine: Muscle control– Serotonin: Mood and appetite control
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Neural Regulators
• Neuropeptides: Regulate activity of other neurons– Enkephalins: Relieve pain and stress;
similar to endorphins– Endorphins: Released by pituitary gland;
also help to relieve pain• Placebos raise endorphin levels
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Fig. 2-6, p. 52
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Neuroplasticity
• Capacity of our brains to change in response to experience
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Neural Networks
• Central nervous system (CNS): Brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system: All parts of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord
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Nerves and Neurons (cont)
• Neurilemma: Thin layer of cells wrapped around axons outside brain and spinal cord; forms a tunnel that damaged fibers follow as they repair themselves
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Fig. 2-7, p. 53
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Two Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System
• Somatic System: Carries messages to and from skeletal muscles and sense organs; controls voluntary behavior
• Autonomic System: Serves internal organs and glands; controls automatic functions such as heart rate and digestion pressure
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Two Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
• Sympathetic: Arouses body; emergency system
• Parasympathetic: Quiets body; most active after an emotional event
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Fig. 2-8, p. 54
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The Spinal Cord
• Spinal Nerves: 31 of them; carry sensory and motor messages to and from the spinal cord
• Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs that leave the brain directly; also work to communicate messages
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The Spinal Cord and Behavior
• Reflex Arc: Simplest behavior; occurs when a stimulus provokes an automatic response
• Sensory Neuron: Nerve cell that carries messages from the senses toward the CNS
• Connector Neuron: Nerve cell that links two others
• Motor Neuron: Cell that carries commands from the CNS to muscles and glands
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Fig. 2-9, p. 54
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Effector Cells
• Cells capable of producing a response
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Neurogenesis
• The production of new brain cells
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Brain Imaging Techniques
• Computed Tomographic Scanning (CT): Computer-enhanced X-ray of the brain or body
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Uses a strong magnetic field, not an X-ray, to produce an image of the body’s interior
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Localization of Function
• Research strategy of linking specific structures in the brain with specific psychological or behavioral functions
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Researching the Brain
• Ablation: Surgical removal of parts of the brain
• Deep lesioning: A thin wire electrode is lowered into a specific area inside the brain; electrical current is then used to destroy a small amount of brain tissue
• Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB): When an electrode is used to activate target areas in the brain
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Electroencephalograph (EEG)
• A device that detects, amplifies, and records electrical activity in the brain
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More Brain Imaging Techniques
• Functional MRI: MRI that makes brain activity visible
• Positron emission tomography (PET): Computer-generated color image of brain activity, based on glucose consumption in the brain
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Fig. 2-12, p. 58
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Fig. 2-11, p. 57
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Fig. 2-14, p. 59
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Fig. 2-10, p. 57
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Fig. 2-15, p. 59
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Cerebral Cortex
• Definition: Outer layer of the brain; contains 70% of neurons in CNS
• Cerebrum: Two large hemispheres that cover upper part of the brain
• Corticalization: Increase in size and wrinkling of the cortex
• Cerebral hemispheres: Right and left halves of the cortex
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Corpus Callosum
• Bundle of fibers connecting cerebral hemispheres
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Neurological Soft Signs
• Subtle behavioral signs of brain dysfunction– Clumsiness– Awkward gait– Poor hand-eye coordination– Other perceptual and motor problems
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Fig. 2-17, p. 60
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Split Brains
• Corpus callosum is cut; done to control severe epilepsy (seizure disorder)
• Result: The person now has two brains in one body
• This operation is rare and is often used as a last resort
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Fig. 2-20, p. 62
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Fig. 2-16, p. 60
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Right Brain/Left Brain
• Humans use 95 percent of our left brain for language– Speaking, writing, understanding
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The Left Hemisphere
• Left hemisphere better at math, judging time and rhythm, and coordinating order of complex movements– Processes information sequentially
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The Right Hemisphere
• Right hemisphere good at perceptual skills, and at expressing and detecting other’s emotions– Good at recognizing patterns, faces, and
melodies– Processes information simultaneously and
holistically
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Frontal Lobe
• Movement, sense of smell, higher mental functions– Contains primary motor cortex; controls motor
movement• Mirror neurons: Contained in motor cortex;
become active when motor action is carried out and when another organism is observed carrying out the same action
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Video: Frontal Lobe
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p. 65
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Association Cortex
• All areas of cerebral cortex that are not primarily sensory or motor in function
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Aphasia
• Language disturbance resulting from brain damage
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Broca’s Area
• Related to grammar and pronunciation– If damaged, person knows what s/he wants
to say but can’t say the words
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Prefrontal Cortex
• Front of frontal lobes; involved in sense of self, reasoning, and planning
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Parietal Lobe
• Just above occipital; bodily sensations such as touch, pain, and temperature (somatosensory area)
• Primary somatosensory cortex: Receiving area for bodily sensations
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Temporal Lobe
• Each side of the brain; auditory center and, for 95 percent of humans, language centers
• Primary auditory area: Auditory information is first registered here
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Wernicke’s Area
• Related to language comprehension; in left temporal lobe– If damaged, person has problems with
meanings of words, NOT pronunciation
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Fig. 2-24, p. 66
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Occipital Lobe
• Back of brain; vision center• Primary visual area: Part of occipital lobe that
first receives input from the eyes
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Fig. 2-19, p. 61
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Fig. 2-22, p. 63
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Fig. 2-23, p. 64
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Agnosias
• Visual Agnosia: Inability to identify seen objects
• Facial Agnosia: Inability to perceive familiar faces
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Fig. 2-18, p. 61
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Subcortex
• All brain structures immediately below cerebral cortex
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Hindbrain (Brainstem)
• Consists mainly of medulla and cerebellum• Also includes pons and reticular formation
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Video: Hindbrain
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Medulla
• Controls vital life functions such as heart rate, swallowing, and breathing
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Pons (Bridge)
• Pons (Bridge): Acts as a bridge between medulla and other structures– Influences sleep and arousal
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Cerebellum
• Cerebellum: Located at base of brain– Regulates posture, muscle tone, and
muscular coordination
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Reticular Formation (RF)
• Inside medulla and brainstem– Associated with alertness, attention, and
some reflexes (breathing, coughing, sneezing, vomiting)
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Reticular Activating System (RAS)
• Part of RF that keeps it active and alert– RAS acts like the brain’s alarm clock– Activates and arouses cerebral cortex
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Video: Brainstem
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Forebrain
• Structures are part of the limbic system, the system within the forebrain closely linked to emotional response and motivating behavior
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Video: Limbic System
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Thalamus
• Relays sensory information on the way to the cortex; switchboard
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Hypothalamus
• Regulates emotional behaviors and motives (e.g., sex, hunger, rage, hormone release)
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Amygdala
• Associated with fear responses
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Hippocampus
• Associated with storing permanent memories; helps us navigate through space
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Endocrine System
• Glands that pour chemicals (hormones) directly into the bloodstream or lymph system
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Pituitary Gland
• Regulates growth via growth hormone• Its hormones influence other endocrine glands
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Pituitary Problems
• Too little growth hormone means person will be smaller than average– Hypopituitary dwarfism: As adults, perfectly
proportioned but tiny• Treatable by using human or synthetic
growth hormone; will add a few inches
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Fig. 2-25, p. 68
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Fig. 2-26, p. 69
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Pituitary Problems (cont)
• Too much growth hormone leads to gigantism (excessive body growth)
• Acromegaly: Enlargement of arms, hands, feet, and facial bones; due to too much growth hormone secreted late in growth period– Andre the Giant
• Pituitary also governs functioning of other glands, especially thyroid, adrenals, and gonads
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The Pineal Gland
• Regulates body rhythms and sleep cycles– Releases the hormone melatonin, which
responds to daily variations in light
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The Thyroid Gland
• In neck; regulates metabolism– Hyperthyroidism: Overactive thyroid;
person tends to be thin, tense, excitable, nervous
– Hypothyroidism: Underactive thyroid; person tends to be inactive, sleepy, slow, obese, and depressed
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The Adrenal Glands
• Adrenals: Arouse body, regulate salt balance, adjust body to stress, regulate sexual functioning; located on top of kidneys– Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine
(also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline)
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Adrenal Hormones
• Epinephrine arouses body; is associated with fear
• Norepinephrine arouses body; is linked with anger
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The Adrenal Glands (cont)
• Adrenal medulla: Inner core of adrenals; source of epinephrine and norepinephrine
• Adrenal cortex: Produces hormones known as corticoids– Regulate salt balance, among other
functions
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Adrenal Malfunctions
• Oversecretion of adrenal sex hormones can cause virilism: exaggerated male characteristics (bearded woman)– May also cause premature puberty if
oversecretion occurs early in life
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Fig. 2-27, p. 70
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Fig. 2-29, p. 74
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Handedness
• Preference for right or left hand in most activities• Dominant Hemisphere: Term usually applied to
the side of the human brain that produces language
• Lateralization: Specialization in abilities of brain hemispheres