Chapter 2: Background and Philosophy of Yoga · Sankhya philosophy originated from the six schools...

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Level 1 – 200 Hour !

YOGA TEACHER TRAINING MANUAL!!

!Chapter 2: Background and Philosophy of Yoga

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© Santosha Yoga 2013 Teacher Training Manual

Level 1 – 200 Hour !

YOGA TEACHER TRAINING MANUAL !Chapter 2: Background and Philosophy of Yoga !“The needs of the body are the needs of the divine spirit which lives through the body. The yogi does not look heaven-ward to find God, for he knows that He is within.” – B.K.S. Iyengar!

We begin this section with self-reflection. The eight limbs – sometimes referred to as the eight steps toward True Yoga – are outlined in the second chapter or pada of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, which are foundational texts of yoga and a key component of Indian philosophy. The eight limbs are in fact, the broad structural framework of yoga itself. They are often described as a path toward the union between mind, body and spirit that the practice of yoga inspires amongst its practitioners.!

!The Eight Limbs !!!!!!!


Eight Limbs of the Yoga Sutra !1. Yama – or universal morality!2. Niyama – or personal observances and observations !3. Asanas – or body postures !4. Pranayama – or control of breath !5. Pratyahara – or control of the senses !6. Dharana – or cultivating of inner perceptual awareness !7. Dhyana – or devotion to, and meditation on the divine!8. Samadhi – or union with the divine

Importantly, only one of the eight limbs pertains to physical postures and exercise. The other seven focus heavily on mediation, spirituality and the cultivation of wisdom. Our training begins with the study of the eight limbs because of their multifaceted nature. For in concentrating on the eight limbs, we automatically begin to cultivate the mind-set and spirituality of a competent yoga teacher. As you study the eight limbs, reflect upon how you might incorporate these principles into your daily life, and consider how you might convey this spiritual wisdom to your students.!

!!!!!!!Yama!

Yama, or universal morality, is comprised of five ethical guidelines for moral behaviour towards others. These guidelines are:!

1. Ahimsa – or non-violence. This includes non-violence in thought, word and deed. In other words, do not think about or engage in harm toward yourself, or anyone else. !

2. Satya – or truthfulness. As was the case in Ahimsa, the truthfulness requirement also pertains to your thoughts. Don‟t just speak the truth; seek out the truth in your own mind, and do not trick or manipulate yourself. !

3. Asteya – or non-possessiveness. You should not steal from others, and you should not even desire things that are not your own. !

4. Bramacharya – or non-lust. This has traditionally referred to celibacy amongst the unmarried, and, in the case of marriage, to abstaining from sexual intercourse with people other than one‟s spouse. Many modern yogic practices have adopted a more liberal interpretation of the Bramarcharya guideline. !

5. Aparigraha – or non-possessiveness. This refers to material objects, the people around you, and even your own thoughts. !

!© Santosha Yoga 2013 Teacher Training Manual

Blog Journal Entry Number 2!!• What do you consider to be an ethical lifestyle?!• How have you dealt with challenges to what you

consider to be an ethical lifestyle in the past?!• How has your yoga practice affected your personal

spirituality?

Niyama!

While Yama provides guidelines for how to treat others, Niyama is comprised of five ethical guidelines governing moral behaviour towards oneself. These include:!

1. Saucha - or cleanliness. This pertains to cleanliness of both body and mind.!

2. Santosa – or contentment. When one is content, one is satisfied with what one has.!

3. Tapas – or sustained practice. The “tapas‟ requirement refers to discipline over the mind and body. !

4. Svadhyaya – or self-study. This involves study of the scriptures and meditation, with the goal of fostering an awareness of one‟s soul. !

5. Isvara pranidhana – or surrender to God. !

Asanas!

Asanas or body postures, comprise the third of the eight limbs, and an important aspect of yoga. It is a part of yoga that in these modern times, tends to be mistaken for the practice of yoga practice in its entirety. Given the fascinating, beautiful and challenging range of asanas that have been developed over the course of history, combined with the tangible benefits of increased strength, flexibility and balance that they inspire, it is unsurprising that asanas have achieved such widespread popularity. However, the eight limbs demonstrate that the physical and mental exercises of yoga are inextricably inter-connected, and asanas must be performed only in conjunction with the other seven limbs in order to achieve a truly rich and complete yoga practice.!

Asana is translated from the Sanskrit as “staying‟ or “abiding.‟ This means far more than physically “staying‟ in one posture. Asanas, when performed correctly, help to still and quiet the mind, and they also allow the practitioner to reflect upon a wide range of human emotions, as well as the interconnectedness of her or his body with the rest of the world. Later in this manual, we will be exploring asanas in great detail.!

The eight limbs of yoga were created in the Yoga Sutras by Sage Patanjali several thousand years ago. In the 195 sutras, only three sutras were discussed by Patanjali on the topic of asana and were mostly in reference to meditation postures. Asana is defined as Sthira-Sukham or a steady yet firm and comfortable posture. In modern day yoga this definition would tell us that asana should allow our bodies to feel relaxed, strong, and steady for the duration of all the poses.!

Pranayama!

Pranayama is awareness and control of the breath, and must be practiced in conjunction with asanas and when meditating. Pranayama brings about the benefits of increased health and relaxation, and it stimulates the process of evolution as it fosters


concentration. We will be reviewing a number of Pranayama techniques in a later chapter.!

Pratyahara!

Pratyahara, or control of the senses, is described as a “withdrawal of the senses from external objects.” It actually translates as the act of “to withdrawing oneself from that with nourishes the senses”. Our senses are nourished by sounds, sights and smells. Therefore, to practice Pratyahara, it is necessary to meditate, and to focus the mind and, therefore, the senses, away from everyday external distractions. Overt reliance upon external objects brings about an almost perpetual state of discontentment, and therefore interrupts our path to inner peace. It is said that through Pratyahara, our senses cease to be our masters, in a sense, and it becomes easier to look inside to find all of the nourishing stability and tranquillity that we need.!

Dharana!

Dharana is the cultivating of inner perceptual awareness. It has also been translated as “immovable concentration of the mind.” As part of Dharana, we create the appropriate conditions to enable mind to focus its attention in one specific direction, as opposed to stemming out into several different directions. Dharana is achieve through meditation, contemplation and reflection. As stated by B.K.S. Iyengar, the objective of Dharana is to achieve a mental state in which the mind, intellect and ego are “all restrained and all these faculties are offered to the Lord for His use and in His service.” He says that, under Dharana, “There is no feeling of “I‟ and “mine.”!

Dhyana!

Dhyana is devotion to or meditation on, the Divine. Like Dharana, Dhyana is achieved through meditation. Once the mind is clear and focused through Dharana in the first instance, it then becomes possible to direct one‟s focus onto the Divine spirit. It becomes clear through Dhyana that the external world, as we have traditionally known it, is in fact unreal, and that the real world is the Universal Self, or God.!

Samadhi!

Samadhi, the last of the eight limbs and the final step in the yogic path, signifies a complete union with the Divine, or “oneness with the object of meditation”. During Samadhi, there is absolutely no distinction between the act of meditation and the object of meditation. The mind ceases to distinguish between the self and the non-self, and, as stated by Doran, “there is only the experience of consciousness, truth, and unutterable joy.” In Samadhi, the liberated soul enjoys a pure identity, and what is called “true yoga” is achieved. Samadhi can only be achieved as a result of great discipline and practice, with asanas and pranyamas paving the spiritual pathway that in turn, helps the practitioner to achieve Dharana and Dhyana.!

!© Santosha Yoga 2013 Teacher Training Manual

!!!!!!!!!!!Sankhya Theory and Related Philosophies !

Sankhya philosophy originated from the six schools of Indian philosophy. It is thought that Sage Kapila is the founder of the practice. Currently the philosophy is used in many yoga and Vedanta schools, but has no actual school solely for the philosophy itself. It is thought that in more recent practices of the philosophy in combination with yoga and Vedanta has created a more atheist approach. The philosophy does not practice the belief in a God, but rather focuses on the duality of Purusa (consciousness) and Prakriti (physical matter).!

Sankhya philosophy teaches that all knowledge can be obtained through three methods. The first is direct sense of perception which is classified into two categories. The first, indeterminate perception, is similar to how a baby perceives the world; they are sensing a lot, but have no means of categorizing what they are sensing into particular sources of input. The second, determinate, is similar to how an adult perceives the world; having a perception, identifying it, and being capable of categorizing it by source and purpose. The second method of obtaining knowledge, known as Anumana, or logical inference or assumptions. The third is Sabda, or verbal testimony.!

Although Sankhya philosophy identifies with the duality of Purusa and Prakriti, there is still a plurality of Purusas. There can be several levels of this transcendental self (pure consciousness). Purusas are absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, and unknowable. Prakriti, however, can only be a single entity. It includes everything but the Purusas, the physical matter and force, all unconscious and unintelligent. Prakriti is constituted of three strands: Sattva, representing balance and equilibrium, Rajas,


Blog Journal Entry Number 3!!• Close your eyes. Picture each of the eight limbs connected together like small

steps leading towards True Yoga. Contemplate the eight limbs as an impending journey.!

• Now make a list of what you perceive as challenges that you might face on our journey towards Samadhi. How might you overcome these challenges? !

• Why do you think this spiritual path is called “The Eight Limbs?”!

• How could you teach your students lessons about The Eight Limbs?!

• Are you practicing yoga if you perform less than or only part of The Eight Limbs?

representing expansion and activity, and Tamas, representing inertia or resistance. It is thought that the balance and tension between these three constituents makes evolution itself possible. The potential of these three constituents gives rise to twenty four principles defining how life emerges.Assignment:!

Sankhya theory can be difficult to comprehend at first. Spend some time researching Sankhya theory on your own and understanding it through different perspectives. Test your understanding by writing in your own words a summary of how you understand the topic.!

Use the following websites to help you begin your research:!

http://www.swamij.com/prakriti-purusha-sankhya.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya http://ignca.nic.in/ps_04013.htm!

!A History of Yoga!

“They must change often, who would be constant in happiness.” - Confuscius!

The word yoga means “union‟ in Sanskrit, and refers to a union of mind, body and soul. Yoga as both a philosophy and a practice is prehistoric in origin. The practice began to evolve in the Indus Valley of India over 5,000 years ago. Archaeological excavations in the region of the Indus Valley, which was an urbane, extremely powerful civilization (circa 3300-1700 BC) – unveiled fascinating stone slabs depicting humans and god-like figures positioned in yoga postures. Indian archaeologists have referred to these images, of which 16 have been found altogether, as yoga-glyptics. Importantly, the findings demonstrated that contrary to popular belief, the early development of yoga actually pre-dates that of Hinduism.!

The exact time-period of yoga‟s origins remains subject to scholarly debate. Some date the origins of yoga back to Stone Age Shamanism. However, most scholars are in agreement that yoga ought not to be recognized as complete, complex tradition until approximately 500 B.C.!

Regardless of precisely how we choose to date the origins of yoga, it is clear that throughout its long, rich history, the yogic tradition has always been passed on individually from teacher to student through oral teachings and practical demonstrations.


We should bear in mind, therefore, that the various formal techniques of yoga are actually based upon the collective experiences of many individuals over many thousands of years. For this reason, the history of yoga ought to be explored in terms of the human evolution that both prompted and was guided by its development. This chapter aims to do precisely this, as it also provides an overview of preeminent yoga thinkers and texts that helped to shape yoga‟s own evolutionary path.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!Naturalism or Vedic Period (exact time period is subject to debate)!

Naturalism marks the period of time during which the venerable Vedas were created. Vedas, which are said to have inspired the origins of modern-day Hinduism, are sacred scriptures Brahmanism. They are the oldest written yogic teachings that have ever been found, and are characterized by intense meditative rituals and ceremonies. The most important of these scriptures was the Red Veda, features hymns devoted to a robust appreciation of life, the body, and the earth upon which we live.!

It was said that during this period of time, people lived in a state of harmony with nature, and with themselves. People were also in touch with Divine nature, and therefore did not require the analytical tools of religion or philosophical enquiry in order to obtain spiritual advancement. For the most part, people lived with a suspended mind, called


nirodha and only used their mental faculties when it was necessary. Over time, people began to lose touch with the pure and simple nature characteristic of Naturalism, and this era was eventually ushered out of the course of human development.!

!Mysticism or Pre-Classical Yoga (ca. 800-100 BC)!

The period of Mysticism – a term that refers to a communication of the inexpressible and hidden- began when a great number of people turned their backs on society, and went into the forest to meditate. They wanted to search within themselves for the happiness they felt they had lost over time. Most of these people had lost the suspended mind that was characteristic of Naturalism, and instead possessed a single

pointed mind (ekagra chitta), which thinks constantly. !

During this phase there were many yoga masters called rishis (seers), who had attained freedom through meditation. Therefore, the students in the forest gathered around them, to learn from them. In this phase, many students could quiet their busy minds simply by listening to their teachers, who taught from a suspended mind, and offered a spontaneous insight into the nature of reality.!

The scriptures compiled in those days were the Upanishads, which are mystical dialogues between teacher and student. For this reason, this particular period of yogic history is also sometimes referred to as the “Upanishadic Era.” The term upanishad means, literally, “sitting near the master.” These texts are useful tools for determining the many paths of development in the history of yoga. !

For example, the Brihadarankaya Upanishad, dated approximately 900 BCE, contains one of the earliest specific, textual references to meditation in history. Another extraordinarily significant Upanishad is the famous Bhagavad Gita, dated around 200 BCE, which is a Sanskrit Hindu scripture that is now considered to be one of the most important religions classics in world history.


Upanishads!• The oldest date back to the Brahmana Period around the first millennium BCE. • Are philosophically complex, and have been analyzed in many different ways, leading to the development of different yogic schools.• Speak of both an universal spirit (Brahman) and an individual soul (Atman)• Contain the first explanations of the divine syllable OM, considered the cosmic vibration that underlies all existence.• Upanishadic thinkers considered change to be a mere illusion.!

• Contain the mantra “Aum Shanti Shanti Shanti” – or, “the soundless sound, peace, peace, peace.” • The very first written reference to the term “yoga” occurs in the Katha Upanishad.

Indeed, the Bhagavad Gita is sometimes referred to as the “Upanishad of the Upanishads.” The text is an allegory, and uses colourful examples and analogies to teach lessons about various yogic philosophies. Importantly, the “Gita” describes three concepts that must be brought together in our lives: Bhakti, or loving devotion; Jhana, or knowledge and contemplation; and Karma, which is actually a guide for selfless actions.!

Philosophy or Classical Period (ca. 100 BC-300 AD)!

When the Age of Philosophy dawned, most people had lost their ability to focus almost entirely, and now had a distracted mind. As a result of this, they could not grasp the truth spontaneously. Importantly, from a pedagogical perspective, a person with a distracted mind cannot understand a teacher with a suspended mind. Therefore, during the period of Philosophy, students needed a teacher with a single-pointed mind to explain systematically what needs to be done.!

Recognizing this difficulty for students, Richi Kapila, one of history‟s greatest yoga teachers, created the very first systematic philosophy of mankind: the Samkhya. Recognizing that the truth could no longer be grasped spontaneously, the Samkhya describes how it can be reached in systematic steps, which is why we refer to this period as the Era of Philosophy. As part of this project, Kapila created a concise meditation system that guided students to freedom by means of a purely rational scientific method. The method proved to be successful amongst yoga practitioners, and several new schools of philosophy emerged in response to the Samkhya, including Buddhism, Yoga, Vedanta and Tantra.!

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Sankhyas !• One of the six schools of Classical Indian philosophy !

• The major text is the Sankya Karika, written by Ishvara Krishna, circa 200AD !

• Regards the universe as consisting of two realities: Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (phenomenal realm of matter). All objects fall into one of the two categories. !

• Espouses cause and effect theory of existence • Regards ignorance as the root cause of bondage and suffering • The author, Sage Kapila, was called “the greatest of all perfected beings” by Krishna !

It was also during the Age of Philosophy that another highly important yoga text was created. This was none other than the Yoga Sutras, created by Pantanjali in the second century. It is comprised of 195 sutras and is particularly noteworthy because of the text‟s heavy emphasis on meditation.!

Sutra means thread and in this context, the term is a reference to the thread of Japa Mala, which are Hindu Prayer Beads. The aphorisms that make up the Sutras are, in a sense, strung together like beads. In this text, the sutras are made up of four books, or pada, containing a total of 95 aphorisms. They are divided as follows:!

(1) Samadhi Pada – or blissful state. The first chapter contains 51 sutras that are considered to be most fundamental to yoga. It emphasises that yoga is about discipline, and the ability to master emotions and thoughts. Many of the most famous sutras are in this particular book. This book describes the nature and means to achieve Samadhi, and contains the definitional verse “Yoga Citta Vritta Nirodha.” In English, this means “yoga is the restraint of mental modifications.”!

(2) Sadhana Pada – or discipline and practice. This chapter contains 55 sutras, and mostly concerns yogic practice. The Sanskrit word sadhana actually means “practice.” The Sadhana Pada is where the notion of the eight limbs of yoga first appears, and it is also the chapter in which the terms „Kriya Yoga‟, or Action Yoga, and “Ashtanga Yoga‟, or the eight limbed path, first appear. !

(3) Vibhuti Pada – or power and manifestation. This chapter contains 55 sutras. The roles of the sutras in this particular book are to describe and help the yogi achieve full awareness through yoga. It is essentially about attaining higher levels of awareness of one‟s true self, because supra normal powers can be acquired by the practices of yoga. The temptation of these powers should be avoided, and attention fixed on liberation. !

(4) Kaivalya Pada – or isolation. This chapter contains 34 sutras, and concerns achieving liberation. Kaivalya literally means “liberation,‟ but in the Sutras it stands for emancipation, and is used interchangeably with moksha (liberation). Moksha is the goal of yoga, and so this book describes in great detail the nature of liberation and the reality of the transcendental self. !

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!!!!!!!!!!!!Technology (or Post-Classical Period)!

Today we live in the Age of Technology, which is, for better or for worse, characterised by an infatuated, distracted mind. Yoga theorists note that the term “infatuated” in this context refers to obsessed with the body or “look,” personal wealth, and familial relations (as opposed to a more general and selfless love of humanity).!

The Age of Technology is also referred to as “tantra,” which literally means “technique” in Sanskrit. Since the teachings of naturalism, mysticism and philosophy are now extremely difficult for people to grasp, there is a new obsession with “how to do things.” Accordingly, the scriptures of this age emphasize yoga technique, place a bit less emphasis on the philosophical aspect of yoga. Most of the texts of this age are, indeed, tantras, including the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Shiva Samhita, and the Gheranda Samhita. We will be exploring the Hatha Yoga Prakipika in greater detail shortly.!

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Yoga Sutras !• A new form of literary composition, based upon short, aphoristic statements !

• Designed to help students memorize the text !

• Composed by Pantanjali in the 2nd Century BCE, though this is a subject of debate amongst scholars !

• Introduces notion of the eight limbs, which is reminiscent of Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path

• Provide a thorough and consistent philosophical basis for yoga-particularly meditation

• Discuss the notion of Karma

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!Modern yoga teachings – the lessons that you have probably become acquainted with in past yoga study – are somewhat different from the teachings of the past, in that they emphasize acceptance and “living in the present moment”, as opposed to liberation from our more immediate “reality.” Yoga was first introduced to the West in the early nineteenth century, as interest in Eastern Philosophy was becoming more widespread around the globe.!

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Shiva Samhita !• A Sanskrit text on yoga written by an unknown author• Believed to have been written in the seventeenth or eighteenth century!

• Describes 84 different asanas!

• Encourages people from all walks of life to practice yoga

• Also deals with abstract yogic philosophy, tantras and meditation

Gheranda Samhita !• Means “Gheranda” Collection • A manual of yoga taught by Gheranda to Chanda Kapali !• Unlike other yoga texts, it speaks of a sevenfold yoga: (1) purification; (2) strengthening; (3) steadying; (4) calming; (5) lightness; (6) perception; (7) isolation !• Teach somewhat different methods than those described by Pantanjali

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Journal Entry Number 4!Try to imagine the experience of yoga different yoga students throughout the historical development of yoga. Now, write a first- person, one-paragraph journal entry from the perspective of a yoga student during each of the four periods that have been identified. The entry should tell the story of a student’s experience in a particular yoga class, and contain details from that particular Era. For example, during Naturalism: “today, during my session with my teacher, I was taught about a new Veda. I found it particularly interesting, because....”!

Having completed this, write a second, one-paragraph journal entry for each of the Eras – but this time, from the perspective of the teacher. “I feel that my student is coming along very nicely...”!

Don’t be afraid to be creative!!

!Chapter 2 Comprehension Check!

Below are some questions to consider so that you can get the most out of your study.!

Vocabulary, Part 1: Match the terms with the appropriate definitions:!

TapasAsteya Plavini Saucha Pranayama AsanasSeetkari Isvara pranidhana Yama Pratyahara Ahimas Ekagra chitta Bramacharya Samadhi!

!Vocabulary, Part 2: Write the English translation of the Sanskrit term:!

(1) Dhyana! _____________________________________________ (2) Niyama! _____________________________________________ (3) Satva! _____________________________________________ (4) Bramacharya __________________________________________ (5) Aparigrapha ___________________________________________ (6) Santosha _____________________________________________ (7) Svadhyaya_____________________________________________ (8) Nirodha _____________________________________________ !

(9) Suryabhedhe___________________________________________!

(10) Shitari _____________________________________________ !


Nonviolence Sustained Practice Swallowing air into stomach Universal moralityUnion with the divine Through the teeth breathing Control of breath Surrender to God Body posturesNon-PossessivenessSingle Pointed Mind Control of the sensesCleanlinessNon-Lust

True or False? The Upanishads speak of an universal spirit, which is called Brahman.Kundalini is a method of breathing outlined in the Yoga Sutras.!

The Shiva Samhita was written in the seventeenth or eighteenth century. !

Naturalism‟ in yoga history refers to a time when people had minds that were operating all the time, and could not grasp the truth spontaneously.The development of yoga is a relatively recent phenomenon.!

The Eight Limbs are also known as a path toward true yoga.!

Samadhi refers to the very first step in the path toward enlightenment through yoga.!

The concept of the “Eight Limbs‟ can be found in the Yoga Sutras.!

Questions To Consider: Essay Assignment Imagine that one of your yoga students is struggling to understand the concept of the eight limbs, and has come to you for assistance. She wants to understand: (1) what the eight limbs are, and what they mean; (2) how she can incorporate these lessons into her daily life; and (3) how they relate to (in other words, how they are inspired by, or different from) other theoretical developments in the longer history of yoga.!

In this essay, write what you would say to your student, to ensure that she thoroughly understands the concept of the eight limbs. Explain to her how the eight lessons developed over the course of yogic history. Explain to your student how to practice the teachings of the lessons.!

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Chapter 2: Background and Philosophy of Yoga · Sankhya philosophy originated from the six schools...

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