Chapter 2 – Methods and History of Gender Research

Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes

1. Introduction

a. Recent research often presents conflicting results.

i. Weitzman (1985) reported that women’s standards of living

decreased 73% after divorce, but men’s increased by 42%

ii. A study with a larger sample (Duncan & Hoffman, 1985) reported

that women’s standard of living decreased 30% while men’s

decreased 7%.

b. The difference in results can be attributed to sample size and

methodology.

c. Understanding the scientific literature on gender requires understanding

social science methodologies.

2. The Scientific Method.

a. Terms used in social science research.

i. The scientific method rests on empiricism.

ii. The information gathered through empiricism (observation) is

called data.

iii. Facts are statements made about data.

iv. Facts are aggregated in the creation of theories, abstract

generalizations that provide explanations for facts.

v. Scientific theories must be falsifiable.

vi. A theory will generate a hypothesis, a prediction of a certain

outcome.

b. Correlational Study

i. A correlational study focuses on the relation between two

variables at one point in time.

ii. The major problem with correlational studies is that there are a

number of explanations for the relation between variables.

iii. Correlations vary between -1 and +1.

iv. A positive correlation is one in which the levels of both variables

increase or decrease together.

v. A negative correlation occurs when the level of one variable

increases as the level of the other decreases.

Rogers & Jordan, IM for Hegelson: Psychology of Gender

vi. Random sampling assures that each member of the population

has an equal chance of being a participant in a study.

c. Experimental Study

i. In an experiment, the investigator manipulates the independent

variable and observes its effect on the dependent variable.

ii. Random assignment means each participant has an equal chance

of being assigned to each condition of an experiment.

iii. Subject variables, such as sex, race or ethnicity are not

changeable.

iv. Sex can be a stimulus or target variable in an experiment,

meaning it is the characteristic of something to which people

respond.

v. One major strength of experimental studies is that they can be

used to determine cause and effect relationships.

vi. Internal validity refers to your confidence that you are measuring

the true cause of an effect.

vii. One weakness of experimental studies is that they are often

conducted in artificial settings.

viii. External validity refers to the ability to generalize findings to the

real world.

d. Field Experiment

i. When experimental methods are taken into the setting where the

behavior under investigation naturally occurs, field experiments

can be conducted.

ii. Field experiments attempt to maximize both internal and external

validity.

e. Cross-Sectional Versus Longitudinal Designs

i. Cross-sectional studies occur when the relation between

variables is measured at one point in time.

ii. Longitudinal studies occur when measurement is taken at

multiple points in time.

iii. Longitudinal studies help distinguish age effects from cohort

effects.

f. Meta-Analysis

i. A meta-analysis quantifies the results of a group of studies.

ii. Meta-analyses can assess an overall effect in terms of its

significance and its magnitude.

Rogers & Jordan, IM for Hegelson: Psychology of Gender

3. Difficulties In Conducting Research On Gender

a. Experimenter effects are the ways the person conducting the research

can influence the study.

i. An experimenter can influence the outcome of a study with the

nature of the question asked and the subsequent design of a

study.

1) An experimenter’s method for choosing participants can

influence the outcome of a study.

2) An experimenter can influence the outcome of a study

with the variables that are manipulated and measured.

ii. An experimenter’s method of collecting data can influence the

outcome of a study.

iii. An experimenter can influence the outcome of the study with the

way she or he interprets the data.

iv. An experimenter’s communication of the findings can influence

the impact of a study.

b. Participant effects are the ways that the people in the experiment can

influence the study.

i. Participants often respond to expectations of behaviors, or

demand characteristics.

ii. Social desirability response bias occurs when participants behave

in socially desirable ways.

c. The setting (laboratory versus field) can affect how conclusions can be

applied to our everyday lives.

d. Status and gender role are often variables confounded with sex in

gender research.

e. Situational influences often affect how people behave more than gender

roles.

4. History of the Psychology of Gender

a. 1894-1936: Sex Differences in Intelligence

i. The primary goal of research in this era was to establish that men

were superior to women.

ii. Scientists examined the size of the brain.

iii. Scientists also examined specific areas of the brain.

b. 1936-1954: M/F as a Global Personality Trait

i. The concepts of masculinity and femininity were introduced.

Rogers & Jordan, IM for Hegelson: Psychology of Gender

ii. A number of M/F scales were developed, but all suffered from a

number of weaknesses.

c. 1954-1982: Sex Typing and Androgyny

i. The instrumental versus expressive distinction helped

conceptualize masculinity and femininity as separate dimensions.

ii. The concept of androgyny emerged from the operationalization of

masculinity and femininity as independent dimensions.

d. 1982-Present

i. One major trend recently has been the view of gender role as

multifaceted.

ii. A second recent trend has been an emphasis on the social context

surrounding gender.

iii. Gender role strain occurs when gender role expectations have

negative consequences for the individual.

1) Self-role discrepancy theory states that strain arises when

you fail to live up to gender roles society has constructed.

2) Socialized dysfunctional characteristic theory states that

strain arises because the gender roles society instills can

be inherently dysfunctional.

Rogers & Jordan, IM for Hegelson: Psychology of Gender

Lecture Ideas – Discussion Starters

Biases in the Scientific Method. Students tend to believe that the scientific method is flawless, especially regarding the elimination of bias in research. They also tend to be unaware of how biases are introduced into every stage of research beginning with the research question through interpretation of results and on to publication biases. Asking students to interpret data is an interesting way to get them to think about how their own expectations and perceptions influence research. There are several ways that you might demonstrate this:

Ask students to develop research questions that focus on male and female differences. Then discuss how these questions reveal certain biases and then generate ideas about ways to reduce bias in a study designed to explore the research questions they identify.

Extend the research questions that focus on female-male differences to additional dimensions including race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, SES, etc. Adding these dimensions may expose additional preconceptions of other forms of societal biases.

If you have asked the class to participate in a survey in earlier classes, you can share the class’s results and ask students to interpret the findings. It can be very interesting to hear students share their various viewpoints about what findings might demonstrate, or not.

Should we study differences? What do we gain or lose by studying differences? What are the pros and/or cons of studying differences? Are we really that different? What is the impact of emphasizing our differences or similarities? These are interesting questions to pose to class and the discussion can demonstrate how we use information to guide decisions that might be discriminatory. Have students take sides and debate the issue. For additional information, an entire issue of Feminism & Psychology is devoted to this question. I have distributed the articles included in this issue for students to review to help them prepare for the debate.

Kitzinger, C. (1994). Should Psychologists Study Sex Differences? Feminism & Psychology, Vol. 4, No. 4. 501-506

Rogers & Jordan, IM for Hegelson: Psychology of Gender

Activities

Nonsexist Research. The purpose of this exercise is to examine the principles of nonsexist research. To prepare for this exercise, you will need to identify a research study and provide a description of the study that provides opportunities to discuss nonsexist research.

Ask students to critique the study. They should consider the ways the literature review and research questions reflect the bias(es) of the researcher, how the research question(s) influenced the design of the study, determine the extent to which the biases are revealed in the conclusions, etc. Students should also consider such things as the practical significance of the findings, the importance of the research to building scientific knowledge, and potential applications for the finding. Finally, students should propose solutions for addressing these biases.

Nature versus Nurture in the News. A central debate for social scientist is to what degree are our personality and behaviors determined by “nature” (genetic and biological factors) or “nurture” (environmental and social factors). While many of us would argue for an interaction of these factors as contributors for differences in sex and gender, published research findings are often criticized for a less than balanced focus on biological factors that contribute to sex/gender differences.

These types of research findings, highlighting differences, are readily identifiable in the media. Local newspapers, USA Today, various popular magazines are good sources of for news items summarizing research findings about gender differences.

Have students locate articles from the popular press or on the web and note the gender differences that are reported in these articles. Students should examine the articles the assumed causes of these differences including differences in physiology, cognitive abilities, social influences, etc. Students should also examine the various explanations and provide alternative conclusions based on the results presented or on the methodology used in the studies being reported.

Femininity and Masculinity. The Bem Sex Role Inventory can be useful in helping students think about how we define masculinity and femininity as either polar opposites as on a continuum, or something else. I have had students take this inventory so that they can have meaningful discussion in class or write a reflection paper. Questions for consideration include asking about the social desirability of the items used in the questionnaire, relevance to current cultural ideas about gender, are the questions and the scale useful for transgendered individuals, etc.?

Rogers & Jordan, IM for Hegelson: Psychology of Gender

Websites and Resources:

Janet T. Spence: http://www.webster.edu/~woolflm/spence.html

Sandra Bem: http://www.webster.edu/~woolflm/sandrabem.html

Joseph Pleck: http://www.aces.uiuc.edu/~hcd/about/pleck_j.html

Ashmore, R. D. (1990). Sex, gender, and the individual. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 486–526). New York: Guilford Press.

Bakan, D. (1966). The duality of human existence. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Hyde, J.S. (2005). The Gender Similarities Hypothesis. American Psychologist. Vol. 60, No. 6, 581–592

Kitzinger, C. (1994). Should Psychologists Study Sex Differences? Feminism & Psychology, Vol. 4, No. 4. 501-506

Pollack, W. S. (1998). Real boys: Rescuing our sons from the myths of boyhood. New York: Random House.

Spence, J. T., & Sawin, L. L. (1985). Images of masculinity and femininity: A reconceptualization. In V. E. O’Leary, R. K. Unger, and B. S. Wallston (Eds.), Women, gender, and social psychology (pp. 35-66). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

The Psychology of GenderFourth Edition

Chapter

Psychology of Gender, Fourth EditionVicki S. Helgeson

Methods and History of Gender Research

2

The Scientific Method

Key Elements of the Scientific Method

• Based on empiricism: information (data) collected using our senses

• Data are used to make statements (facts)

• Collection of facts used to develop theories

• Theories provide explanations for a set of facts

Key Elements of the Scientific Method (cont'd)

• Theories can be used to generate hypotheses, i.e., predictions of certain outcomes under specific sets of conditions

TABLE 2.3 Key Terms Used in Scientific Method

TABLE 2.3 (cont’d) Key Terms Used in Scientific Method

FIGURE 2.1 Steps in the research process.

Types of Research Designs

• Correlational Study

Observe relation between two variables, often at a single point in time

Value of a correlation can range from -1 to +1

Positive correlation: levels of both variables increase or decrease at the same time

Negative correlation: level of one variable increases as the level of the other decreases

FIGURE 2.2 Examples of a positive and negative correlation.

Types of Research Designs (cont'd)

• Correlational Study

Strive for random selection of participants

Use caution when generalizing findings

Types of Research Designs (con’t)

• Experimental Study

Method in which the investigator manipulates one variable and observes its effect on another variable

Independent variable (IV) is the manipulated variable (cause)

Dependent variable (DV) is the variable expected to be influenced by the manipulated variable (effect)

TABLE 2.1 Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables

Types of Research Designs (cont'd)

Random assignment of participants is key feature

Correlational Methods vs. Experimental Methods

• Advantages and disadvantages to each method

• Correlational research usually easier to conduct; has high external validitybut low internal validity

• Experimental research usually has high internal validity but low external validity if conducted in the laboratory

TABLE 2.2 Experimental Methods vs. Correlational Methods

Can “Sex Differences” Studies Be True Experiments?

• Sex cannot be manipulated or randomly assigned so not a true IV

• Usually a subject variable, i.e., a characteristic of a person

• Most research that compares men and women is correlational and not experimental

Can “Sex Differences” Studies Be True Experiments? (cont'd)

• However, when sex is a stimulus or target variable, a true experiment can be conducted

What Can Help Enhance Validity?

• Field experiments, conducted in the field where behavior naturally occurs, can maximize both internal and external validity

• Longitudinal studies, with multiple time points, can boost the internal validity of correlational research

What Can Help Enhance Validity? (cont'd)

• Cross-sectional studies provide data at only one time point, usually from a cross section of different age groups

FIGURE 2.3 Depiction of a longitudinal design in which one can disentangle the causal relation between employment and health.

Meta-Analysis

• Statistical tool to summarize the results of many studies

• Meta-analyses have been conducted on sex comparisons in a wide variety of domains

• Considers both statistical significance and size of the difference

Difficulties in Conducting Research on Gender

Experimenter Effects

• Ways in which the experimenter can intentionally or unintentionally influence the results of a study

Questions asked and study design

Study design: Participants

Study design: Variables manipulated and measured

Data collection

Data interpretation

Communication of results

Experimenter Effects (cont'd)

• Remedies: team of scientists with opposing beliefs conduct the research; replication

FIGURE 2.4 Stages of the research process that can be influenced by the experimenter.

Participant Effects

• Demand characteristics refer to the ways that participants can influence study outcomes

Social desirability response bias

More likely to occur when behavior is in public rather than private setting

• Remedies: ensure confidentiality; disguise purpose of study; have multiple measures of a behavior

Setting: Laboratory vs. Field

• Gender differences less likely to be found in laboratory rather than in field settings

• In laboratories, men and women face similar conditions

• In the real world, men and women often do not face similar situations

Setting: Laboratory vs. Field (cont'd)

• Laboratory studies often rely on college students, who differ from the general population in a number of ways

Variables Confounded with Sex

• When comparing the sexes, can’t be certain that differences are due to sex alone

• Sex may be confounded with:

Status

Gender role

Other factors

Situational Influences

• Need to consider situational constraints that can affect whether or not gender differences will emerge

• More behaviorally constrained situation, more gender similarity

• Certain situations, e.g., weddings, can accentuate differences

Situational Influences (cont'd)

• Need to study gender in context, the situation in which men and women interact, and the people with whom they interact

FIGURE 2.7 This is a sex-typing typology based on people’s scores on masculinity and femininity.

1894–1936: Sex Differences in Intelligence

• Tried to establish that men more intelligent than women:

Size of brain

Size of specific brain areas

• Experimenter biases a problem

• Sex and Personality by Terman and Miles (1936): no sex differences in intelligence

1936–1954: Masculinity-Femininity as a Global Personality Trait

• Notion of gender roles introduced

• Construct of masculinity-femininity (M/F) studied

Attitude Interest Analysis Survey (AIAS; Terman & Miles, 1936)

- 456-item inventory with seven subject areas

- First comprehensive measure of M/F

- M/F opposite ends of a single continuum

TABLE 2.4 Sample Items from the Attitude Interest Analysis Survey

TABLE 2.4 (cont’d) Sample Items from the Attitude Interest Analysis Survey

TABLE 2.4 (cont’d) Sample Items from the Attitude Interest Analysis Survey

1936–1954: Masculinity-Femininity as a Global Personality Trait (cont'd)

Masculine men and feminine women seen as healthy

Measures of Masculinity-Femininity (cont’d)

• Problems with M/F scale of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway & McKinley, 1940)

Femininity items validated on homosexual men

Measures of Masculinity-Femininity (cont’d)

• Projective tests introduced to reduce demand characteristics of self-report measures

Problem: Drawings interpreted as evidence of masculinity and femininity

• All M/F scales developed during this period had conceptual weaknesses

FIGURE 2.6 Examples of the kinds of incomplete drawings that appeared on Franck and Rosen’s (1949) projective test of masculinity/femininity. How the drawings were completed was taken as an

indication of masculinity or femininity. The second column represents masculine ways of completing the drawing and the third column represents feminine ways of completing the drawings. Source: Adapted

from Franck and Rosen (1949).

1954–1982: Sex Typing and Androgyny

• Influential book: The Development of Sex Differences by Maccoby and Jacklin (1966)

1954–1982: Sex Typing and Androgyny (cont'd)

• Innovation in conceptualization and measurement of gender: M/F not bipolar opposites

Masculinity/ femininity as separate dimensions

- Instrumental vs. expressive distinction

- Linked to gender roles in two widely used measures:• Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974)

• Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence et al., 1974)

TABLE 2.5 Personal Attributes Questionnaire

Androgyny

• Outgrowth of M/F inventories (e.g., BSRI)

• Initially determined by similar scores on M/F scales and later by high scores on M and F scales

• Thus, androgynous person displayed both masculine and feminine traits

FIGURE 2.7 This is a sex-typing typology based on people’s scores on masculinity and femininity.

Androgyny (cont'd)

• Androgyny thought to be a healthy ideal but valued traits overlapped with masculine traits

• Inventories criticized for socially desirable items

Undesirable Aspects of Masculinity and Femininity

• Need to consider and measure the socially undesirable aspects of male and female gender roles

• Led to personality constructs of unmitigated agency and unmitigated communion

Unmitigated agency: focus on self to the exclusion of others

Unmitigated communion: focus on others to the exclusion of the self

TABLE 2.6 Unmitigated Communion Scale

1982–Present: Gender as a Social Category

• Two important shifts in thinking about gender

Gender role as multifaceted, multidimensional: two dimensions are not enough

Emphasis on social context in which gender occurs

• Consideration of strain arising from norms associated with gender roles

Gender Roles as Multifaceted

• Masculinity and femininity as broad categories that include personality traits, physical appearance, occupational interests, and role behaviors

• Need M/F research on more diverse populations

Emphasis on Context

• Consideration of situational forces that influence whether gender differences are observed (Deaux & Major, 1987)

• Social context influences display of sex differences and meaning of gender

• Social construction of gender

Gender arises from our interactions with others

Gender-Role strain

• Gender-role strain occurs when norms (social expectations) for one’s gender role have negative consequences for the individual

• Two theories of gender-role strain (Pleck, 1995)

Self-role discrepancy theory

Socialized dysfunctional characteristic theory

Gender-Role Strain (cont'd)

• Male Role Norms Inventory (Levant & Fischer, 1998): Measure of male gender-role strain

• Among men, includes homophobia, competitiveness, emotional inhibition, aggression, reluctance to seek help

Gender-Role Strain (cont’d)

• Less studied among women, but includes fear of physical unattractiveness, fear of victimization, problems with behaving assertively, uncertainty about how to behave in traditional male settings

• Nature of gender-role strain differs across race, ethnicity, and culture