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Transcript of Chapter 2
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Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 2
A Child’s World: How We
Discover It
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Theory
Coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to: Organize
Explain
Guide/Inspire
Predict
Hypotheses
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Basic Theoretical Issues
Nature vs. nurture
Active vs. reactive
Organismic vs. mechanistic
Continuity vs. discontinuity
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Early vs. later experience
Stability vs. change
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Psychoanalytic theories: Freud and Erikson
Behavior is a surface characteristic
Need to understand the symbolic workings of the mind
Early experiences with parents are emphasized
THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
?
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Freud’s Theory Psychosexual Development
• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)• Parts of personality
– Id– Ego– Superego
? ?
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Psychosexual Stages
Fixation: Too much or too little gratification
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Erikson’s TheoryPsychosocial Development
• Erik Erikson (1902–1994)– Modified and expanded Freud’s theory– Psychosocial crises – Identity
• Differences from psychosexual development– Social interactions– Conscious – Active actions– Eight stages ?
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Learning Theories
• Behaviorism - John B. Watson– Classical conditioning - Ivan Pavlov– Operant conditioning - B. F. Skinner
• Observable Behavior; individual passively learn behaviors
• Social Learning Theory– Observational learning – Albert Bandura
• Active participants in learning
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Pavlov’s classical conditioning
A neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response originally produced by another stimulus
Skinner’s operant conditioning
The consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence
A behavior followed by Reinforcement or Punishment
Behavioral Theories
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Social Learning Theory
• Albert Bandura – Added Social and Cognitive influences to
behaviorism– Observational Learning– Reciprocal Determinism (B E P)– Self-Efficacy– Child is an active learner
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The Cognitive Perspective
Focuses on children’s mental processes and the behavior that reflects those processes
– Jean Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory– Information-Processing Theory– Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
? ?
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Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory
• Worked with Binet on IQ tests for children• Children are “natural physicists” • Developmental
– Think different at different ages
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PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
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Piaget’s Basic Concepts
• Organization– Schemes
• Adaptation– Assimilation– Accommodation– Equilibration
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Information-Processing Theory
Influenced by the concepts of computer science
– Input, Storage, Processing, Output• Encoding• Memory• Retrieval
– Software and Hardware• Mental processes• Brain
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Sociocultural Theory Culture and social interact to guide cognitive
development
Thoughts are “created” by the culture we live in and the tools we use
Cognitions are created and live in our social world
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
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The Contextual Perspective
Urie Bronfenbrenner’ s Ecological Theory• Reciprocal interactions between individual
and their environment.– Not a Developmental Theory!– Focuses on systems children participate in
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Figure 2.2 - Bronfenbrenner’sBioecological Theory
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E. O. Wilson and Darwin
Ethology: Adaptive behaviors and critical/sensitive periods. Study animals and apply to humans.
Evolutionary Theory: Survival of the fittest and development of adaptive behaviors in a particular society/culture.
Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective
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Research Methods
Quantitative research: Deals with objectively measurable data.
Based on scientific method: System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry.
Identifies a problem to be studied.
Formulates a hypothesis to be tested by research.
Collects data.
Analyzes the data.
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Research Methods
Forms tentative conclusions.
Disseminates findings.
Qualitative research: Interpretation of nonnumerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs.
Focuses on the how and why of behavior
Informs both how they collect data as well as its interpretation
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Table 2.3 - Comparing Qualitative and Quantitative Research
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Sampling
Sample: Group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study.
Should adequately represent the population under study
Type used by quantitative researchers
• Random selection• Selection of a sample in such a
way that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen.
Type used by qualitative researchers
• Focused selection• Participants are chosen for
their ability to communicate the nature of a certain experience.
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Table 2.4 - Major Methods of Data Collection
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Basic Research Designs
Case study: Study of a single subject, such as an individual or family.
Offers useful in-depth information.
Ethnographic study: In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation.
Uses a combination of methods, including informal, unstructured interviewing and participant observation.
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Basic Research Designs
Participant observation: Observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed.
Correlational study: Intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists.
Variables - Phenomena that change or vary among people or can be varied for purposes of research.
Correlations are expressed in terms of direction and magnitude.
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Basic Research Designs
Two variables are related positively if they:
Increase or decrease together
Two variables have a negative, or inverse, correlation if:
One increases and the other decreases
Correlations are reported as numbers ranging from +1.0 to –1.0.
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Figure 2.3 - Scatter Plots of Positive, Negative, and No Correlations
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Basic Research Designs
Experiment: Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other.
Experimental group: Group receiving the treatment under study.
Control group: Group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under study.
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Basic Research Designs
If the experimenter wants to compare the effects of different treatments, overall sample may be divided into treatment groups.
To ensure objectivity, some experiments use double-blind procedures.
Neither participants nor experimenters know who is receiving the treatment and who is instead receiving an inert placebo.
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Basic Research Designs
Independent variable: Condition over which the experimenter has direct control.
Dependent variable: Condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable.
Random assignment: Assignment of participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group.
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Basic Research Designs
Laboratory experiments - Participants are brought to a laboratory, where they experience conditions manipulated by the experimenter.
Field experiment - Controlled study conducted in an everyday setting.
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Basic Research Designs
Laboratory and field experiments differ in two important respects:
Degree of control - Exerted by the experimenter
Degree to which findings can be generalized beyond the study situation
Natural experiment - Compares people who have been accidentally assigned to separate groups by circumstances of life.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Basic Research Designs
Type Advantages DisadvantagesCase study • Flexibility
• Provides detailed picture of one person’s behavior and development
• Can generate hypotheses
• May not generalize to others• Conclusions not directly testable• Cannot establish cause and
effect
Ethnographicstudy
• Can help overcome culturally based biases in theory and research
• Can test universality of developmental phenomena
• Subject to observer bias
Correlationalstudy
• Enables prediction of one variable on basis of another
• Can suggest hyptheses about causal relationships
• Cannot establish cause and effect
Experiment • Establishes cause-and-effect relationships• Is highly controlled and can be repeated by
another investigator• Degree of control greatest in the laboratory
experiment
• Findings, especially when derived from laboratory experiments, may not generalize to situations outside the laboratory
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Table 2.6 - Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal, and Sequential Research
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Collaborative Research
Meta-analysis - Provides a systematic overview of the research on a topic .
Through statistical analysis of the combined findings of multiple studies
Used for controversial findings
Are an attempt to reconcile disparities across a large number of studies
Designs and methodologies of the studies may be inconsistent
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Ethics of Research
Guidelines of the American Psychological Association cover issues like:
Informed consent and avoidance of deception
Protection of participants from harm and loss of dignity
Right to decline or withdraw from an experiment at any time
Responsibility of investigators to correct any undesirable effects
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Ethics of Research
Three Principles of Ethical Dilemmas
• Beneficence - Obligation to maximize potential benefits to participants and to minimize potential harm
• Respect for autonomy - Of those who are unable to exercise their own judgment
• Justice - Inclusion of diverse groups together with sensitivity to any special impact the research may have on them
Ethical Considerations That Can Present Problems
• Right to informed consent• Avoidance of deception• Right to self-esteem• Right to privacy and
confidentiality
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Table 2.7 – Developmental Considerations in Children’s Participation in Research